Hal

Saturday, March 25, 2006:

TRADES AND ARTS Notes on Translation Acknowledgements and IntroductionNotes on the Translation It is a great understatement to call the production of a translation of this type a challenging undertaking. It was however immensely rewarding. In deference to the editors of the original German text of Handwerke und Kuenste, the translator feels compelled to point out to the reader that these translations cannot be regarded as infallible. Particularly due to the heavily technical nature of the material and regional dialect of the Berlin area, the German text often required a creative approach in order to bring the sense of the content over into English. Paramount to the translator was the desire to give the English translation, a directness and accessibility that the German text delivered. This accessibility of the German text most often expressed itself in compact yet complex and information laden constructions which, when brought over into English, become cumbersome, tedious, and often entirely inaccessible. Thus, overcoming this unfortunate transformation became a greater challenge than finding the definition of "Winkelweiser" or "Geschlinge." The editor, Otto Ludwig Hartwig, and his predecessor, Peter Nathanael Sprengel, often rendered aid in a not so indirect way.Their publication was intended for the youths in the Realschul. It was meant to be utilitarian and not just as a matter of course. In the preface to the first volume appearing in 1767, Peter Sprengel wrote at great length about the need to bring education to the youth of Prussia in a form that would be most attractive and expedient; avoiding lengthy, staid lectures and instead bringing the practical education to the student. This goal was so high a priority with Sprengel and Hartwig, that even their most detailed descriptions of trades practice always have at their core the idea that the student must understand the subject matter easily and completely. Therefore, the translator also reaped the benefit of this aspiration and hopes to pass it along, so far as he is able, to the English-speaking reader. Always the emphasis has been put on capturing the meaning of the text and perserving the nuance of the authors as much as possible. Though the text is technical, a high priority has been placed on making it readable. Therefore, precise translation of the text following the exact order of the prepositional phrases, verb tenses, and the like has not been attempted. The content of the text is of paramount importance.Inevitably, the definitions of certain technical terms have been difficult to establish and the reader is likely to find some of the terms selected questionable. The translator hopes that the overall text has not suffered too deeply from his deficiencies and invites suggestions from the readers regarding changes that might improve the work.Finally, the translator does encourage those with a knowledge of German to dealve into the original text of this book and others like it. For the historian of technology, there remains a great deal to be uncovered.Description of an Iron Forge at Neustadt-Eberswalde Copyright: Harold B. Gill, III; 1990Volume 5 Section 6{Page 184}Description of an Iron Forge at Neustadt-EberswaldeI. The most common and most inexpensive, but still the most indispensible metal is iron. Undoubtably, the creator has spread the ore of this metal most plentifully in nature because it provides human society with many important benefits. Therefore no metal occupies the hands of more tradesmen than this one and that is why the next two volumes of this book deal chiefly with the iron workers.As promised, the account of an iron forge at Neustadt- Eberswalde in the Mittelmark shall be the first among the iron working treatises. In brief, one will relate the most necessary information since the texts of von Justi and Schreber provide an extensive account of important German iron forges. The particular forge considered is not positioned near the high furnace in order to fully refine pig iron as are the majority of iron forges, {Page 185}but it merely supplies the neighboring copper forge with implements, forges notched bar iron for the Neustadt knife factory, and manufactures a few articles for the gun factory. To a certain extent, one can compare it to the Rhineland refinery of which Doctor Schreber spoke in the first part of the second volume of his "Cameralschriften". The other important works in this neighborhood left only a few hours in which one could take in a view of this forge and this section shall render an account from the observations collected there.II. Iron and steel are the products of nature that will be worked at an iron forge of this type. A. The iron has a gray color and a whitish surface on breaking. In hardness, this metal surpasses all the others and in spite of this it is tough when it has superior quality. Both qualities taken together indisputably are the reason that no metal is so elastic as this one. After tin, it has the least specific gravity, since it displaces pure water in the ratio of 8:1. It dissolves easily in aqua fortis (nitric acid) but does not dissolve easily in mercury. With the exception of lead, one can join it to all other metals without difficulty. {Page 186}Who is there who doesn't know that the magnet attracts it and that it can be turned into artificial magnets? In all the kingdoms of nature, one finds traces of this metal and therefore there is hardly any land that should not have iron ore, except that these various regions give so little iron that it hardly compensates for the outstanding costs of mining it. One finds it in the mountains and on the surface of the earth as well.It is difficult to bring it to melting temperature and therefore it serves the artisan to work another quality of this metal which is more advantageous; namely that it easily becomes red hot and can be stretched and shaped under the hammer. Its superior hardness which is reinforced by this action makes it suitable for tools with which one can forge the remaining metals and iron, itself, and with it, one can divide the majority of remaining substances. Because of its elasticity the strongest springs will be made from this and because it becomes tougher through annealing, it can be drawn into wire. Its utility would be greater still if it didn't have two short-comings; namely that it is easily burned to clinker in the fire and that it will be consumed to a brown red rust in water and in air. All of this, the scientist teaches about iron. The remaining observations of the work place one reserves until the next section. {Page 187}That it can be made harder by artificial means has already been said and through this arisesB. Steel that thus is nothing more than hardened iron. Until now, the opinion of the scientists has been divided over what occurs during the transformation when iron changes into steel; whether the superfluous sulfur must merely be separated or whether one must bring more combustible pieces into proximity of the iron when it is to be converted into steel. In the first case one would have to remove the sulfur with alkaline salts, in the last situation however horn, bones of animals, coal dust, soot and other things must comprise the many combustibles that are imparted to the iron. Mr. von Justi in his Essays on the Manufactures and Factories Volume II page 362 alleges two means to make steel, the cementation and the smelting. In cementation, a thin rod of iron is placed in a cementation box made of copper or iron and the remaining empty space is filled with a cementation powder of burned and pulverized horn, hooves of animals, old leather, hair, along with coal dust. One must allow the box to lay in the fire from six to eight hours and the heat must be raised gradually. After this, the iron will be forged under the hammer a few times.{Page 188}In the majority of steel mills, one prefers to choose the puddling process however. The pig iron will be refined on the refining hearth and, in this operation, is treated in the same manner as in other iron mills except that the hearth consists of coal stumps. This gives a wrought iron that the steel mill calls steel stones and is smelted anew on a forge made of coal stubs. Here, one can likewise put horn and oxen hooves etc. in the fire with benefit. During the smelting lard and tallow will be thrown on the fire, partly so that the steel will not be burned and partly also that the combustion of these things is passed on from the combustion of the coal to the iron. When the whole mass has been set in the fire bit by bit and is melted into a loop, that is, a piece that sticks together, then one brings it under the hammer that is driven by water and it is worked thoroughly. Seldom does the steel receive its quality entirely from the first smelting. As with the cementation, so it is with the smelting; the steel must be cooled in cold water, this brings its fibers closer together and augments its hardness. The mills supply this artificial metal to artisans in cakes or small bars. The English themselves use Steiermark steels for their best cutting instruments and one claims{Page 189}superiority for these over all European types of steel in spite of the local ironworkers' assertions to the contrary.C. As is well known, the iron forge prefers to allow its charcoal to burn slowly out of pine wood.III. The machines and the manufacture of the work of an iron forge are so inextricably tied to each other that they cannot be easily separated. The mill in which one finds the hammer works lie on the "Fuehne" and the strong undershot water wheels of the hammer axles will also be driven from this small stream. The mill is divided into two workshops.A. In the smallest workshop standsa) a smiths forge with a double wooden bellows that are likewise water powered.b) a small ordinary forge where the iron is heated for tools for the neighboring copper forge and is forged on an ordinary anvil.c) a skelps hammer. It is among the tilt hammers as is the broad hammer of the coppersmith (Volume 4 p.132) and resembles it completely.{Page 190}The large hammer axles move due to six lifting arms and the hammer itself weighs one half hundredweight. With this hammer one forges only skelps or long thin rectangular plates from which the gun mill at Potsdam will manufacture smooth bores and rifles. The skelp's length and breadth will be determined by the size of the different types of guns and the hammersmith uses only the Swedish pattern iron out of which they are forged to guide them in such a manner under the hammer so that the necessary thickness and size result.d) The rod hammer likewise weighs one half hundredweight. It differs from the former only in that on the face a small narrow piece projects along the entire length of the face of which one can get a good idea from [Figure I r on Plate VI]. One has set up this hammer first because the hereditary tenant of the knife factory at Neustadt Eberswalde, the Splittgerber heir of Berlin, rents this iron forge also in order to let the smiths of this factory forge notched bar iron for knives, shears, and chains. The hammersmith guides only large bars of Swedish or native iron under the hammer until they have the requisite thickness, and the hammer strikes the iron with notches without his assistance as one can easily see from its appearance.{Page 191} B. Next to the two spacious workshops stands a) A refinery with a strong wooden double bellows that the stream powers. Experienced people know that all fineries are small high furnaces and it would be superfluous to describe these further because one can read accounts about this type in a hundred other writings. It is sixteen feet high. For a few years the gun factory at Potsdam has had occasion to use this furnace to recycle the boring tailings that are produced during the boring out of guns. They deliver their tailings according to their weight and drop the price somewhat for the loss and the cost. One smelts the iron shavings in this furnace again into a mass that adheres together or into a loop and therefore the oven stands next to a large forge with which the loop can be brought under the trip hammer at once.In the second large workshop isb) a large smiths forge with a double wooden bellows that is similar to the refining hearth of the iron forge by the high furnace. It appeared to be about ten feet long and six feet deep.{page 192}c) The helve of the trip hammer runs parallel to the hammer axle because hammers of this type will not lift behind the lifting arms of the axle shaft rather the long wooden lifting arms grasp the handle just under the iron. [Figure I ab,cd] on Plate VI are both strong wooden beams with their grip in which the sleeves [ef] of the hammer [gh] move. The hammer itself weighs two hundredweight and has a cylindrical face, as does the skelps hammer. [ik] is the strong hammer axle that has four wooden lifting arms [l] with which they lift the shaft of the hammers. [mn] is the length wise rectangular anvil in an iron casing that surrounds a strong anvil block; [mo] is a small wooden gutter that directs running water on to the anvil block so that it does not ignite from the flying cinders, and [pq] the stump guard rod which is connected with the guard board on the gutter with which one can provide slack water in the workshop and at the same time can provide the motive force for the axle as the circumstances allow. (See Volume IV p. 130). Under these hammers the following pieces are manufactured:A. One also forges rods out of the loop from the finery. One divides the loop with a strong chisel under the hammer into{page 193}smaller pieces and, from each piece, a rod will be drawn out that the hammersmith must regulate in size and form under the hammer.B. From the loop, plates for the cuirasses for the arms' factory will be drawn out as well. The hammer forges them into just such a plate that has the required size of the cuirasses but are not yet further formed other than that one has to a certain extent provided the round cut outs for the arms of the cavalryman. It will employ so much iron in the large forge considered, that what begins as one loop, be can forged into four cuirasses. The inserted pieces of iron melt together in the forge into an adhering mass or loop and as soon as the slag falls away like water, one brings the iron under the hammer. Two hammersmiths seek to work the loop out of the forge with levers onto the anvil as well as possible and allow it to become somewhat flat. After this last process, there is nothing left to do other than to guide the loop with strong tongs suitably under the hammer and this applies to all the remaining tasks of this type. The loop will then be cut into four equal pieces with a chisel and each piece is extended by eye into an oblong quadrangle plate under the hammer. If, during these operations, the loop{page 194}becomes bent around on the anvil, then the hammersmith props the handle of the hammer with a strong wooden piece that he cannot grasp with the lever and this also occurs if the hammer is not in use. C. The large anvils will also be made from a loop that one forges around an iron rod so that it can hang on a crane, a familiar machine, on a chain and it can be brought easily out of the fire, onto the anvil, and back into the fire again. One puts so much iron in the forge as the anvil will weigh and when it is suitably melted together into a loop, then the anvil will be shaped under the trip hammer and after this, it is steeled. In the last situation, the hammersmith forges a plate of steel according to the size of the anvil, heats the anvil along with the steel, lays the plate on the face of the anvil and joins both metals to a certain extent. Then he brings the united masses into the fire once more, gives it welding heat, forges steel and iron together completely under the trip hammer, and shapes it at last entirely as a complete anvil. With almost the same processes, the anvils of the anvil smith will be manufactured who sometimes turn up in cities. They must be put in a forge in the open air because the forges of the blacksmith are not large enough for this work.{Page 195}D. The large hammers will be forged like the anvils. The iron out of which the sledge hammers of the blacksmith are to be made, one welds onto an iron rod so that it can be controlled comfortably on the anvil and in the fire. The handle hole will be cut out with a strong chisel.IV. The hammersmith of this hammer work at first came from the Duchies of Gotha and Eisenach. They have a private factory at the mill that has no association with the blacksmith. At the iron forge described one at present takes on local apprentices, that study approximately four years at the discretion of the managers. A skilled journeyman becomes a foreman, then master.
Harold // 5:05 AM
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TRADES AND ARTS The Farrier and Armourer Copyright: Harold B. Gill, III; 1991P. N. Sprengel's Handwerke und KuensteVolume 5 Section 7The Farrier and ArmorerI. Contents: In daily life, the farrier and armorer is usually called a blacksmith. With him, the ironworker has doubtless found his origin, since he works the iron in the simplest manner, a sure indication of antiquity. The heat of the coal softens the hard metal for him, and most of the time he forges farming tools and the metal work for wagons with just the hammer and anvil. In addition, he manufactures the roughest but most indispensable cutting implements by joining iron and steel. Consequently, in the most extreme situation, a village can be deprived of every other artisan except the blacksmith.II. Aside from smiths' coal, the blacksmith uses no materials other than iron and steel.A. In the Prussian provinces, only two types of iron are worked, the Swedish and the native. In the past, the local ironworkers also employed the iron which is produced in the Harz mountains. The native iron is brittle and will therefore only be employed for small articles for which no great durability is required. For example, it can be used for the bolt in the flat iron and the gratings in front of the tuyeres. Time and experience will teach whether the inner contents of the iron are defective or whether our neighbors simply better understand the art of refining iron in the mills and working it under the hammer. The iron from the Harz mountains falls between the former and the Swedish iron in quality. Bars of this type are found occasionally that fully measure up to the Swedish type. Unquestionably, in quality and superior forging characteristics, the Swedish iron surpasses not only the foregoing types, but perhaps the iron of all other lands. It is therefore worth the effort to stay with this subject a while and to cite the most important facts about the workshop.As is well known, the iron refinery of the blast furnace delivers the iron to the workshop in long bars of various thicknesses. Of these, the smith calls all large iron whose breadth exceeds its thickness, pattern iron. The longest bars are normally three or four inches thick and are called plain pattern {Page 198}iron. From these bars the most massive pieces will be forged. In Berlin, it is very seldom worked however since smaller bars must often be cut into narrow rods before one can use them. Much more frequently the local smiths use the following types: 1) The iron that is marked with SF is two inches broad and 3/4 inch thick. One frequently works these into large pieces. An example is the metalwork of the wheels with a tire. 2) The second type has a rose for a mark and the iron derives its name from this. It is just as broad but not quite as thick as the former. The smith uses it for the common iron bands on wheels and praises its superior quality in spite of its being too hard for locks. In contrast, The locksmith prefers to purchase 3) The bars marked HH and, even more so, those marked HS because the iron is at the same time soft and durable. Its breadth amounts to 1 1/2 inches and its width 1/4 inch. One must mention in general, that the locksmith is compelled to see that he purchase only soft iron because he frequently must finish his pieces cold. Certainly it cannot be a lie, that hard iron takes on a better polish on filing, only it is correctly maintained that the durability and saving of time with soft iron compensates amply for its faults. Besides the pattern iron, the iron worker merely uses the ordinary iron and the notched bar iron for{Page 199}small articles. The former is about 1 inch thick diagonally and its breadth and thickness are equal. Notched bar iron, the iron forge has drawn out very thin so that it is only 1/2 inch thick. Its edges are indented here and there and from this it has received its name. Because it is already refined more thoroughly than the former bars, thus the cost of one hundredweight of this iron is 1 Reich Thaler more. In spite of the superiority that the Swedish iron has over the other types, it is not generally of the same quality throughout. Indeed, often one finds in one bar good and bad iron and the locksmith in this case is compelled to see that, if a soft iron is a necessity for a job, the bars with hard places are set aside and saved for work that will not be done cold. Therefore the locksmith has reason to test the iron precisely. The blacksmith certainly prefers to work soft iron as well because it can best be forged and does not fracture so easily. Those things are excluded that bear great friction. For example, plough shares and boxes for the axles of wagons, as one can easily see, require hard iron. Because he can use both hard and soft iron and buys many bars at once, he thus employs no precise test in purchasing but rather he selects{Page 200}the iron merely from their outward appearances. If the iron has streaks or small cracks along its length or a so called high edge, it is good for welding and working. If the streaks follow the breadth thus the iron is "red breaking", that is, it does not hold the heat and is not easily forged. It appears as if this last iron is not completely refined at the iron forge. It is improved somewhat through the welding of the smith but only very little. As has already been mentioned, the locksmith must scrutinize the iron that he is buying much more carefully. Therefore he makes a notch on the bar with his chisel, and strikes down the grade with a hammer. If the grade does not break during this test then the iron is malleable and can be worked well cold. In contrast, if it breaks, then the iron is hard and unsuitable for the locksmith's work. Besides this, the quality of iron can also be learned from part of the break. If the break has a white color, that is not too brilliant, that generally is consistent and has large serrations, then the iron is malleable and good. White flecks and small serrations on the break are signs of a steel hard iron. From the brown break one recognizes a leafy iron that takes on no polish from the file. The iron that is not fully worked at the iron forge has black flecks in the fracture. The break of the hardest iron resembles the gray{Page 201}fracture of steel and if the break is reddish then the iron certainly can be worked well cold but on heating it is brittle and easily broken. On the best iron little slag sets up in the fire which the smith call tinder when it is still on the heated iron, though cooled, they call it scale. This by-product consists of many iron particles. Therefore the blacksmith stops now and then to collect the scale and supplies the iron mill with a bushel for 12 Groschen, because they can make it into good iron again. One also mixes this slag with lime because the lime makes the mixture bind better and makes it harder. In this case, the smith sells 1 bushel for 13 to 16 Groschen. Besides this, one sometimes sees large pieces of slag lying in front of the forge of the blacksmith. This collects under the fire of the forge from impurities of the iron and from the coal. They contain but few iron particles and therefore no attention will be paid to it. The loss of iron in heating and forging the iron is 15 pounds per hundredweight.The blacksmith works the old iron again, but only that which results from his work, it is then that old iron will be brought to the forge for smithing. The by-products{Page 202}are collected in small pieces into an old horseshoe that is bent a little. The smith calls one such collection of small pieces with the horseshoe a "stuffed pigeon", and heaps on the small pieces until he can forge two horse shoes from them. One holds all these pieces together with tongs, gives them welding heat in the forge and welds them together. Among the tools, one will notice a special tongs with which larger pieces can be held together during the heating. The locksmith only takes the trouble in idle hours to weld together old iron because the loss of coal and time usually outweighs the benefit. Besides, with heavily rusted old iron, there is great loss.A hundredweight of Swedish iron costs 7 Reich Thalers, native iron though costs only 4 R Thalers 20 Groschen.B) Most iron workers of this region praise the steel of Cologne as the best and attribute a defective hardness to English steel and steel of Steuermark and pit steel suitable for cutting instruments. Perhaps the price has a noticeable influence on their judgement since 1 pound of steel from Cologne costs 4 Groschen 6 Pfennig but English steel costs 8 Groschen. It is known that the English know how to give their steel a superior spring temper and this occurs without any detrimental hardness.{Page 203}On the other hand, skilled ironworkers have assured the author with good foundation that one gives preference in the local area to the steel of Cologne only for the reason that has already been remarked upon since it may be forged and hardened with profit. The quality of the steel cannot be easily discovered cold. It commonly has a similar gray color to its fracture, the serrations are not fine and a piece can easily be struck off so these are signs of its quality for the iron worker. It is far better to examine it by forging. The poor steel will be brittle under the hammer to such a degree that it often explodes apart in tiny pieces and it throws off tiny sparks. These last traits should be a sign according to the remarks of a few smiths that he should add pieces of copper to it.C) The iron worker heats the iron with charcoal and also with coal. In the small villages and in the flat country, the blacksmiths are in the habit of carbonizing their own charcoal. The charcoal from pine and especially from beech wood give the most continuous and liveliest heat chiefly if they are burned from boughs and are fairly hard and crisp. During the carbonizing of the charcoal, one leans the pieces of wood in a circle around a vertical stake and makes a charge or wood rick out of a few such circles. On this wood rick, fully two or three charges of just this type will be set and the{Page 204}whole covered with fat earth or with sod so that the burning wood changes to hard charcoal only gradually. In the covering there will be air vents here and there and in this manner the wood can be changed to charcoal so that most of the combustible parts remain. One such covered and burned wood rick is called a charcoal kiln. In one of the following sections this work will be extensively described. The local smiths buy a ton of charcoal for 6 Groschen.Coal gives a quite stronger and quicker heat and saves the iron worker time and effort. It is natural then that, with the known traits of the metal, this coal heats more quickly than charcoal. The artisan maintains that a ton of coal works just as well as three or four tons of charcoal of the same size. This is only true for English coal, since one maintains that the coal of Magdeburg is worse. If the ironworker does not understand the art of heating the iron with this coal, then he is exposed to the danger of burning his metal. The iron is not allowed to lie in the burning coal at welding heat so long that upon being taken out stars or sparks jump off as with the charcoal and it is taken out of the coal more often in order to observe the heat. A mixture of charcoal and coal will not please some iron workers because they cannot normally predict the necessary heat of the iron, meanwhile others assert that this is of value only for small pieces of iron, but with large pieces one can lay charcoal underneath and coal above to advantage. The latter holds the heat of the former together better. One ton of English coal costs two R. Thaler.Note: The coal is composed of a hard earth that is mixed with combustible parts. Therefore, upon burning, they also emit a sulphurous smoke, much of which is disagreeable and dangerous in the room. The smiths assert that as little of the soft coal is the best for their work, in spite of this being contrary to the observations of the scientist.III. The work of the farrier and armorer is so simple that only a moderate number of tools will be required to overcome the hardness of iron and shape the metal with profit in all instances. The blacksmith has many of these tools in common with the following iron workers and because of their greatnumber, it is all the more important to describe them carefully.A. The forge of all metal workers who draw the heated metal with the hammer are the same in the essential parts{Page 206}with the exception that the forge [Plate VI, Fig II] of the blacksmith is the largest. Therefore it will be superfluous to analyze them in this section since this has already occurred in (Volume IV, page 154). In the meantime the following deviations merit mention: 1) In the large cities, the blacksmiths who have a great deal of work give their forge a double fire box [a, b] and therefore each has a separate bellows [cd, ef]. A separate smiths' anvil stands in front of each fire in the forge. 2) Between both fire boxes lies a hollowed out beam [gh] which one calls the quenching trough. This vessel must be filled with water constantly so that the coals can be moistened with the coal wisp, [Figure IV] a round stick onto which straw is tied at front. In addition to this, there are other small tools belonging to the forge. The smith arranges the coals in the forge with the coal slice, [Figure III]. For this purpose, this instrument has a hook at one end and below this, it has a blade with which the large coals will be broken up. The poker [Figure V] breaks the coal up so that it is looser when one wants to build up the fire. The sand ladle's name [Figure VI] already tells its form and use.B. The large smiths' anvil [Figure VIII] with a strong steeled face commonly weighs 10 to 11 hundredweight. It is set into a {Page 207}large anvil stump just a few inches and its own weight makes it immovable. The anvil stump is bound however with an iron ring so that it doesn't split. On one of the narrow sides there is a square hole [u] on the face into which one fixes the tang of a small chisel on which the iron will be cut and other small pieces also will be used in this hole. The hot chisel [b] also stands completely on the anvil stump.C. The hammer is the most important tool of the blacksmiths and therefore it is no wonder that one sees variations of this tool in great numbers in his work shop.A few hammers are round or somewhat rounded on their faces in order to draw out the iron. Among these are particularly: 1) the sledge hammers. They are the heaviest hammers of the blacksmith, since the largest weigh between 30 and 40 pounds. Using these, one draws out the largest bars and gives them the form required. On the face stands a peen which on some runs parallel to the handle; but on others, is set at a right angle. The first, one calls a straight peen sledge hammer [Figure IX]. The other is called a cross peen sledge hammer. With both peens together the smith draws out a bar following its length and breadth. The{Page 208}journeyman guides the sledgehammer and the foreman uses a much smaller hammer of this same type that one calls 2) the forging hammer [Figure XI]. Still smaller hammers are called 3) the peen hammer and will be used on all occasions. 4) The peg hammer has a rounded face on both sides and one side is just a bit shorter than the other. One forges nails with it, and therefore it belongs to the forge of the nailsmiths. 5) If the face of this hammer is smooth they are used for polishing and the blacksmith calls them smooth hammers. One moistens them with water and polishes the decorative finials on large bars of the coach with them, for instance. 6) Other hammers with a double polished face, the smith calls set hammers because with these he makes an indentation or depression in the iron. He sets the face of the hammer on the spot that he wants to depress and strikes on the opposite face with the sledgehammer. The edges of the face of some are rectangular and on others are round. In the discussion of the locksmiths, one will become more closely acquainted with these.The second type of hammer has a sharpened broad peen, that runs parallel to the handle and on the other side has a head. In general, they are called chisel hammers because large bars are cut and chopped into smaller rods with them. [Figure XIII]. One can also rank among these the fullers {Page 209}that merely have a duller edge than the chisel. With this, the blacksmith gives a horseshoe slots on its underside into which the holes for the nails will be struck. In the blacksmiths' shop, one finds hammers with which one punches holes in the heated iron in larger numbers and with more variations. They must have a point on one side and have a head on the other side. 1) With the horse shoe stamp [Figure XV], the worker first strikes or stamps the holes that he will strike into the horseshoe and with 2) the pointed hammer [Figure XIV], he punches the holes completely. Therefore, the point of the first is dull. For the holes in tires on the wheels, the smith also has two larger pointed hammers of this type. The former, used to stamp the holes, he calls 3) the tire stamp [Figure XVI a]; the latter though, that punches the hole completely [Figure XVII] is called the tire punch. The former is dull pointed as well. The latter is fully pointed. In the last case, the band will be laid on the hole ring [Figure XVI b], a thick iron ring. The purpose of the smith punching holes of the horseshoe and tire with two types of punches is that the first hole on the side where the nail will be driven in will be larger. The heads of the{Page 210}nails sink most of the way into this hole and therefore when the projecting part grinds off it is all the more secure.Finally there are hammers, that are only used in a few isolated instances. 1) The swage hammer is useful to the iron worker only when he wants to shape the iron in a particular way. With the swage hammer, the blacksmith normally will only decorate the heads of a rod on the coaches with moldings. There are two parts of such a swage, the hammer itself and its bottom swage. Half of the knob is imprinted in the steel face of the hammer [Figure XXIV], the other half is imprinted into the bottom swage [Figure XXV] that has the same size as the face of the hammer. Moreover, there are still two arms beneath this last part in order to slide it onto the anvil and thereby hold it fast. The use of this tool will become clear in the following text. Among the swage hammers are also a type of 2) planishing hammer [Figure XII a] with its bottom swage [b]. One finishes the round and hexagonal rods with this. 3) Likewise, one can rank the sphere or cotter hammer [Figure XXIII b] with these.{Page 211}One drives out the pin of the cog wheels because the cone lies in the bottom swage and is driven into the indentation of the foundation with the peen of the hammer. 4) The channel hammer has a broad strong peen [Figure XXIII a]. The blacksmith gives the hatchet a groove between the haft hole and the bit with this. 5) The tack and cross hammers [Figure XVIII] and [Figure XIX] are pointed hammers with a shortened point on which a half sphere stands on the former; and, on the latter; a cross. The smith simply makes decorations on the iron with these, and also with the 6) S hammer [Figure XX] on this hammer stands a Latin S and it will strike sinuous lines by setting one S next to another. On the flat peen, instead of an S, there are two parallel lines, in order that parallel lines may be added to the decoration on the iron. 7) On the marking hammer [Figure XXII] stands the name of the master and 8) the rapping hammer [Figure XXI] with two peens serves merely to tap the edge of the scythe and lining knife thinner.D. The tongs are nearly as numerous as the hammers. 1) the fire or work tongs [Figure XXVII] hold the iron when one heats it up or forges it on the anvil. On some, the jaws are broad at the front, with others pointed or even completely bent.{Page 212}These last, one calls a stork bill [Figure XXVIII]. In order that the tongs and the iron remain joined during the work, the smith holds the grip together with a small clamp, the spanner [a]. 2) The smallest type of tongs, are called stump tongs because they always lie on the anvil stump so that they are always conveniently at hand in all trifling situations. 3) With the wheel tongs [Figure XXIX], the foreman holds and adjusts the tire on the wheel during forging. The catch [a] on the tip of one jaw and the peg [b] on the middle of the other are required for directing the tire properly on the wheel. The foreman grips the tire in the middle with the wheel tongs and two journeymen bend it around on both ends with the wheel hooks [Figure XXX]. If the smith fits the wheel with the hoop instead of a tire then he draws it onto the wheel with a hoop hook [Figure XXXI]. The wooden rod [ab] will set against the rim and the iron hook [c] grips the iron hoop. The hook is fastened to the rod with a link. 4) The ear or drawing tongs [Figure XXXII] have two catches next to each other on the tip of their jaws. With these, one grips the holes of the bands, that are laid around the strong wheels for durability, and bends them around the wood. 5) With the sheet tongs [Figure XXXIII], one grips the so called box when it is fastened into the wheel.{Page 213}Therefore they have a catch on each end. 6) The mouth tongs [Figure XXXIV] have two rectangular sheets instead of jaws. The lower is somewhat bent around on both sides and the other jaw, which is completely smooth, fits into this groove. With this, the old iron is held together when one wants to heat it up in order to weld it together. 7) The hammer tongs are merely intended to hold the hammer fast when one wants to heat the peen and sharpen it. Therefore their jaws are bent.E. The blacksmith gives heads to small nails in a header. It is a strong rectangular iron in which there are holes of different sizes [Figure XXXV a]. On each side is a small round raised area onto which the head will be beaten round. The holes of the horse shoe nail header [Figure XXXV b] are opened on the side. One forms the head on the horse shoe nail with this. The smiths have a special header for each kind of small nail, for example tack and caulking header, but these belong to the section about the nailsmith.F. The mandrel [Figure XXXVI] is the name for the iron workers of a round or square peg with which they strike holes in the metal cold. Therefore they must have large and small mandrels in suitable number. The {Page 214}iron in which one wants to punch holes will be laid on the hole of a hole disk [Figure XXXVIII] into which the mandrel fits. It gives a very sharp raking angle if the hole is too large. Therefore there are holes of different sizes and forms in the iron plate that one calls the hole disk and through this foundation one avoids the raking angle. With the horseshoe mandrel [Figure XXXVII] the holes of the horseshoes will be opened again when it is fitted.G. Tthe smith places large nails in the hole of the large nail header [Figure XXXIX] when he wants to forge the head. It is a stout rectangular iron on a block [a]. Above is a hole [b] which extends to the slot [cd]. The purpose of this is to allow the the nail to be pushed on its point out of the large header again. The large nail headers are about two and a half feet high and the small ones are about a foot high.H. The wheel auger [Figure XL] is a flat rectangular tip on an iron handle. One bores holes with this in the rim of the wheel for the nails. In other instances of this nature one prefers a point drill, that is different from the former only insofar as it has no flat point but instead all four sides are the same length.J. The form of the beak iron [Figure XLVI] is already known. It is just of value here {Page 215}to note what has been mentioned in the foregoing text already; the beak iron of the blacksmith is particularly large. It stands, as the anvil does, on a stump and has a round and a rectangular horn.K. The box chisel [Figure XLI] is partly flat like an ordinary broad wood chisel [a], and in part it resembles a half cylinder [b]. With both, the smith chisels out as much of the hole of the wheel as the thickness of the box amounts to, and cuts the wood completely smooth with the box reamer [Figure XLII]. This last tool is a bent blade on a handle.L. In the round slot of the bending jig [Figure VII] the sheet on the axle of the wagon will be beaten round. It has a tang underneath with which it can be positioned during use in the hole of the smith's anvil [Figure VIII a].M. The vice [Figure XLIII] unquestionably is indispensable to no artisan more than to the iron worker because he must hold the iron with it in all situations; when it is cold and also when he wants to work it hot. Therefore the description of this most commonplace of instruments has been spared until now. Its major parts are the two strong iron halves [ab, ac] that are bent and are broad at [a].{Page 216}On the largest vices, their thickness extends to two inches; their breadth, to half a foot and their length, from one to two feet. Both are held together by a rivet in two large iron pieces of metal [bd] that one calls wedges. And similarly these wedges give the movable halves [ab] a symmetrical arrangement. In the German vice, the movable halves [ab] have, a strong spindle at [e] fastened on with screw threads [ef] that merely pass through the other half [ac]. On its tip, a hexagonal casing [f] or a nut is placed that one turns with a key [fg] and through which both jaws press onto each other or are separated from one another. The key has a hexagonal ring at [f], that fits onto the nut. Alternately, on other vices a movable round rod, to which one gives a large knob on both ends, is placed into a hole on the tip of the housing, in order to reduce the force of the swing. Following the rules, mechanics would make the vice as strong as the screw is tight and the key is long. In spite of this the ironworkers tend to make the key only half as long as half of the vice because with the longer key beginners, or probably even the master himself, in haste can easily crush the iron that he is clamping. The French vice has all the parts mentioned but the screw is opened differently. In the case of the German vice,{Page 217}the key [fg] lies on the work table on which the vice is fastened. On the other hand, with the French vice, the key is opened with greater advantage at the head. Therefore the spindle [ef] is fastened onto the half [ac] and passes through the movable arm [ab]. The eye will also easily recognize that the vice illustrated is a German one. In order that the vice opens all the better, between both halves a strong spring [id] is inserted. The vice stands on a post [ch] on a wooden stump next to the work bench and is fastened onto the work bench with an iron bench iron at [d].N. Files and rasps are familiar enough.O. Of the screw plates [Figure XLVI], there is nothing further to mention except that which one has already said often about these tools, other than that a handle is stuck into the head of the tap [a] with which the nut will be bored that the metal worker calls a turning iron [Figure XLV]. With the blacksmith, this is particularly important because he manufactures very strong screws out of hard iron.P. In the meantime, the blacksmith also cuts up iron with a chisel [Figure XLVII] and he makes S lines with half round chisels on his metal cold.Q. The haft mandrel [Figure XLVIII] has the form of an eye of an ax or a cleaver,{Page 218}and this hole will also be formed on this iron thus like a ring on the handle of a spade on the round peg.R. The whet stone is familiar enough.S. The sheet shears [Figure XLIV] of the smith deviate from the shears often described only in that during use they are fastened on a tang into the hole on the smiths' anvil.T. Finally, the so called shoeing tools for shoeing horses should be named. One finds them lying together on a small table in the workshop, so that they can easily be carried to the street during the shoeing of a horse. On the table are the following pieces; 1) The cutting blade [Figure L], a piece of an old saber takes off the old iron and the nails on the worn out hoof. If the horse's hoof needs trimming, then one trims it with the 2) work knife [Figure LII], and attends to the iron as necessary. The knife is made entirely of iron and the forward broad edge, which on both sides is somewhat bent trims the hoof. 3) The rasps [Figure LIV] smooth the hoof completely. In the fitting the shoe itself, the smith makes use of the hoof tongs, the hoof hammer and the riveting iron. 4) With the hoof hammer, [Figure LIII], a small hand hammer, the nails will be driven into the hoof. {Page 219}The smith rivets the nails around with the 5) rivetting iron [Figure LV] that is solid and about 1/2 inch thick and 2 1/2 inches long and he knocks the excess off with the edges. 6) The hoof tongs [Figure LVI] are used only when the nails bend around, to pull them out again or also to take out the old nails. Wild horses one binds with the 7) mouth muzzle [Figure LVIII] with which one lays the frame (a) over the nose, the bar (b) in the mouth and the bar (c) under the mouth. 8) With the nose brush [Figure LI] the nose of the horse will be cleaned and with the slate iron [Figure LVII] the smith cuts off the tips of the incisor teeth. In the meantime, the smith is also a skilled horse doctor and therefore must possess a few instruments for this that will however find an inconvenient place for discussion here.
Harold // 5:04 AM
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IV. The iron workers have various methods of working iron in common and it would be cumbersome to repeat these items with the descriptions of each iron working artisan. For the sake of brevity therefore the universal foundations of the iron workers will be premised in this section and one will refer to these more often in the text hereafter.A. As is commonly known, all iron workers heat the iron in a coal fire and, {Page 220}by this means, soften it so that it can be drawn under the hammer. The heating or, as the smith says, the warming of the iron is always the first operation in the working of the metal. The iron will be held in the smith's tongs [Figure XXVII] during heating to position it in the fire comfortably, to carry it to the smith's anvil [Figure VIII] and adjust it on this tool. Should it be necessary to heat it in the fire, then the iron must lie a bit below the opening of the tuyere of the bellows at a little distance. Failing this, the wind of the bellows cools off the iron continuously and it doesn't take the necessary heat. This is also the reason that the tuyere lies somewhat inclined. During the heating, the ironworker brings the coal together over the iron with the hook of the coal slice [Figure III] fairly often and cuts the large pieces of coal apart with the edge of this tool. Meanwhile, he thrusts into the fire and under the iron with the poker [Figure V]. The coals will thereby lie more loosely and the fire will be increased. Finally the coals must also be moistened with water with the coal wisp [Figure IV] during this process. This has manifold uses. By this means, one prevents the coal from being burned by the fire all at once and, at the same time, the heat is collected in the middle of the coals under the iron. Above all, the iron worker has noticed that the holes occur in the iron when the coal has not been made wet.{Page 221}They call these holes "Swabians". Following the nature of these conditions, the smith can give the iron three types of heat. The highest heat one calls the welding or flowing heat. Normally the iron worker is referring to this heat when he says that he gives the iron "heat". At this temperature, the slag on the iron that the smith calls scale is already fluid and drops from the iron. This fluid scale is the reason that the iron throws off bright sparks, when the iron is taken out of the forge and that is the sign that the metal already has attained welding heat. The iron worker must give his metal this heat with great care however, if it is to be thoroughly heated and but not burned. From the arrangement of the forge and the positioning of the iron in the blast, one will easily comprehend that the lower side of the metal will be heated most. Nevertheless, it is necessary that it receive the same degree of heat throughout, if it is required that the hammer work it through, and therefore one must rotate it in the fire. If only the underside is already heated somewhat, then one turns it over in the fire and sprinkles it with sand from the sand trowel [Figure VI] at the same time. The heated side would burn during the time that the other side is heated if one did not cool it off with this material. In a few regions, {Page 222}one uses loam or earth instead of sand, but experience shows that the sand does better service. The steel will be heated up to welding heat with still greater care if it is not to fall apart under the hammer. The more brittle or, according to the language of the workshop, the "fresher" it is, the more caution the smith must use in handling it. If its brittleness is not to be detrimental, then it must be placed into the sand mixed with some salt not once but several times during the heating. This first happens if it begins to become white hot and one then rotates it in the fire the same. It will be repeated two more times during the heating and also if it is to be be dressed on the anvil. One does not allow it to lie in the fire as long as the iron and this also applies to the steel hard iron. A few smiths maintain it to be advantageous to moisten the coals with muddy water during the heating of steel. The iron is allowed to receive welding heat only if it is to be worked through with the large sledge hammers and, in the remaining cases, a milder degree of heat is sufficient. If it cools during the shaping, then one again brings it to white heat and, if the smith wants to retouch a piece here and there, then he brings it to red heat. These two heats have received their name from the color of the iron and this is also the{Page 223}sign that the iron has the requisite degree of heat. In this it is not important, however, to turn the iron or strew sand upon it. In cutting, the iron lies a half of a quarter hour in the glowing coals until it is red hot and for each higher degree of heat, two minutes longer. One says this though with qualification, because in cutting smaller pieces of iron the smith can naturally heat in less time than he can with large ones. In very good coal, especially in hard coal, the time will likewise be reduced. This also applies to the mass of coal that surrounds the iron. Therefore, as is easily seen, one does not place as much coal on smaller pieces as on large ones. If a smith does not wish to bring a completely heated iron under the hammer again, then he sticks it into the sand in the meantime and cools it off by this means so that it doesn't burn.B. The purpose of heating the iron is to weld it and forge it and this is indisputably one of the most important parts of ironworking. For the sake of clarity, the descriptions of this common work of the iron worker should be premised with a few observations. First to be noted is that for iron, the smith gives the fire a severe degree of heat that they call welding heat, so that they can bring the parts of the iron together more densely with their large sledge hammers {Page 224}and, through this, increase the density of the iron. During this operation, they must still continually aim at establishing the form of the work that they want to forge from the iron and accordingly they shape the metal at the same time. If the main objective has been reached, then one should only bring the iron to white or red heat. Those ironworkers that want to work the iron cold after the smithing must make it particularly compact during the welding because otherwise the iron becomes flaky and gets chipped which is detrimental, particularly for filing. Secondly, the iron workers have agreed among themselves on silent signals, through which they communicate during the forging. And this is about as important as anything else because the striking of large hammers would make words unintelligible. The signals will be given by the one that holds and adjusts the iron with tongs on the anvil. The farrier and armorer or blacksmith calls the worker the foreman, though he may be the master himself or a journeyman. For most work, the foreman can hold the tongs with his left hand and with the right guide the forging hammer [Figure XI] with which he gives most signals. The signals themselves are taken from the nature of things, it would be superfluous to name them all. For example, the foreman strikes normally with the forging hammer on the iron, or in the middle of the anvil{Page 225}and if he strikes hard, then this is the signal that the journeyman should likewise heave his sledgehammer [Figure IX, X] heavily. If they should direct their sledgehammers to another part of the iron, then the foreman strikes first on this place with the forging hammer and should they cease forging, then he lets his hammer fall a few times on the edge of the anvil. If he turns the hammer around and strikes with the peen, then the journeyman must do just the same. In just this manner, the journeyman knows already that they should draw up a part of an iron rod, if the foreman lays it on the anvil in such a manner that an end projects. In brief, the foreman must designate all blows and the journeyman must continually follow his example. Therefore one easily sees, that the foreman must have a good eye and much experience which is not required in the journeyman to such a degree. With large pieces, that the foreman must hold with both hands, he cannot direct all the operations without words however. This postulated, the general situations of forging will become comprehensible. 1.) Most rods of iron must be cut up into smaller bars with the hot chisel [Figure XIII] before one forges an object out of them. Too much time would be lost in drawing a large bar out.{Page 226}The iron worker allows the iron to be heated merely red hot, lays it on the smiths' anvil [Figure VIII] and a worker sets the chisel on the metal, and moves it continually along the length of the bar as the remaining workers strike the head of the chisel with the large sledge hammers. 2.) Meanwhile it is important to stretch the bar along its length or along its breadth and this is done with the cross- [Figure X] and straight- [Figure IX] peen sledge hammers. Should the bars be hammered thinner along their length and stretched at the same time, then the peens of the hammers fall onto the iron parallel to the breadth of the bar and the peen of the forging hammer first, then the peen of the cross peen hammer following every blow. From this, it is revealed that both workers must take such a position that the handles of their hammers make a right angle. If the bar is to be transformed into a strong sheet along its breadth however, then the situation is reversed. Both peens of the sledge hammer now strike parallel to the long side of the bar and the forging hammer again strikes first on the spot, after this, however, the cross peen hammer strikes. Also, from this work both hammers have received their names. Out of the bar that has been stretched in this way, either along its breadth or its length, results a thick sheet of metal that is necessary in many of the iron workers' situations. The smiths say that they forge it narrow{Page 227}if they draw out a piece of iron with the peen of the hammer. 3) Of the forging of square bars there is nothing more to say other than that the foreman adjusts them during the forging very well by eye. 4) The foreman moves round bars in a circle continuously and lets them be formed in the rough by the sledgehammer. He must finish the finest work after this with a forging hammer that first beats down any uneven places and the rods must be completely rounded. They will never be made completely round under the hammer though, and therefore those bars that are to be particularly fine will be evened with the planishing hammer [Figure XII]. This only applies to hexagonal bars. The smith fastens the foundation of the swage [Figure XII b] on the anvil by means of its tang, lays the bar in its round opening, sets the top swage hammer [a] on the bar as well and lets the large sledge hammer strike on to the swage hammer. In this manner one place on the bar after another will become completely smooth. The iron must be at white heat for this and if the bar is to be correctly smoothed, then one covers the indentations of both halves of the swage with water. With these same processes, the hexagonal bars will also be evened in a hexagonal depression of both halves of a swage. 5) The welding of iron is to be particularly noted,{Page 228}which is characterized mainly by the raising of the heat to welding heat. Raising the heat to welding heat means only that the iron is forged more densely, welding however unites two separate pieces. For example, the iron out of which a plough share is composed. The spots on both pieces which one wants to fuse together will first be heated and forged thinner or scarfed. An edge results from this at the front that can burn off at the welding heat, however, if it were not knocked off. The smith strikes with the hammer against the edges so that they become a bit thicker. Then he gives the scarfed places that he wants to weld together a welding heat and strikes away the scale as best he can before the irons are laid on each other because this scale will prevent the uniting of the metal. The scarfed places will be positioned together on the anvil and first the iron will be only struck quite lightly so that the pieces don't get driven away from each other, but gradually the blows will be strengthened. This unites the two pieces of iron very well, but one can always notice the joint. If it happens that the pieces do not want to fuse then the smith must first sprinkle sand and a little salt and, if need be, a little ash onto the iron. The notching of the scarfed edges helps but little in this, because the notches will burn up at the welding heat. If one wants to join two or more pieces of iron very precisely,{Page 229}then one can also drive rivets completely through the pieces that one wishes to unite before the iron is brought to welding heat. This occurs only rarely though. 6) In addition, the steel will be welded and forged just as the iron except that one must first very slowly strike upon it with the sledge hammers with blows of gradually incresing strength. It breaks apart under the hammer, just like the very hard iron, when the sledge hammer falls on the brittle metal with all its force. The remaining points that pertain to forging are best left to be illustrated by examples.C. The tools, springs, and cutting instruments receive a superior hardness and therefore all iron workers must understand the art of hardening the iron as well as the steel. 1) Among the different materials, hardening the iron is the simplest; namely, one brings it to red heat and quenches it in the water. Instead of the latter, the iron worker forges it also entirely on the anvil cold with a wet hammer. It receives a steel hardness, if one brings it to red heat and quenches it in salt, shavings from horn and herring oil. After this it will be made red hot again and put into the water. The iron can receive a better hardness still, according to the declarations of the iron workers, if one sprinkles it with burned and pulverized hooves,{Page230}lays it in a clean container or sheet metal box, moistens it with urine, and places it in the fire until one believes it is red hot. Then it will be cooled in the water as well. The iron workers say that they temper the iron when they harden the iron by both these means. The editor merely tells the processes of the iron workers without determining whether one could change iron into steel by increasing these methods. 2) With cutting instruments, one gives the steel a better hardness in salt usually which the iron worker also calls tempering. The steeled instruments will be completely immersed in the salt and it must lie in it until it turns blue. Then it will be heated again and quenched in the water. Very seldom do the iron workers harden the cutting implements in tallow, because it is expensive and a special trough is needed for this, which only a very few smiths have. The steeled instruments also will be made red hot, and put into tallow which one keeps in a trough. A few also put the cutting instruments into old leather and in this it also receives a good hardness. 3) The steel springs must be particularly well hardened, because this strengthens their elasticity. Normally, the spring will be brought to red heat, cooled in water smeared with tallow and held in the fire until the tallow is melted. The spring should receive a superior{Page 231}hardness however, when one cools it at red heat in the water, smears it with tallow, and lays it in the coal until the steel blues; that is until the tallow is completely absorbed. The iron worker strikes down on the spring with an iron hammer, and holds it to be fully hardened, if in doing this small sparks spring off. Finally, it will be cooled in the sand. A few iron workers use wax instead of tallow.D. Finally, we see that for all iron workers it is necessary to make the iron and steel malleable again through the annealing, when it becomes brittle under the hammer. This occurs in all the work that is bent cold or that needs to be worked with the file or chisel. 1) The easiest method is for one to throw it in the glowing coals and leave it lying there a few hours without the bellows being applied. This occurs when the piece has lost its malleability. 2) The iron becomes even more malleable if one sticks them into loam or, even better, into the excrement of humans, that any iron worker can easily find in the privy, and allows it to lie in the fire all night, so that it cools in it. Experience teaches that, since the aforesaid applies to either metal, the steel as well as the iron will be most annealed when the fire in which it lies is burned from a mixture of coal and wood. The remaining occupations of the iron workers are partly not common {Page 232}to all and partly can only be explained by examples.V. The processes of the blacksmith will be given a closer look in this section and, in the following sections, the remaining iron working trades will gradually be explained. The farrier and armorer manufacture their works either from iron only or they join iron and steel for cutting implements. Both will best be illustrated by examples.A. From iron, he forges anchors and cramps for buildings and metalwork for agricultural implements and wagons.a) There are anchors of different types but they normally consist of two parts the ear and the bolt (wedge). The ear is an iron rod, that has on one or both ends a ring through which the bolt, a stout nail, is driven. When the iron for the ear is at an appropriate welding heat, then one forges the place where the ring should be a little thinner, bends the piece of iron on both sides of the thin forged area together free hand with a hammer. Through this, it forms the ring itself. The nail is forged as round as possible with the hammer because,{Page 233}with the anchors, one does not require decoration so much as durability. It receives the head in the large header [Figure XXXIX]. With this and the remaining examples, one presumes that forging and welding are already understood by the reader. For the cramps, the smith cuts a piece from a small rod with the hot chisel [Figure XIII], sharpens it on both ends, bends the points on the corner of the anvil, and forges the head above the point a bit broader so that the cramp can be driven in well.b) Among the agricultural implements, the masterpiece of the blacksmith may be the pitch fork (dung fork). A triangular point will be forged first at the front of one piece of iron and the remaining part will be drawn into a sheet that one forges around the iron cotter with the hammer and welds it together. This latter operation provides the hole through which the handle of the fork will be fastened. At this point, the smith takes another piece of iron and gives it a triangular point on each end as long as the former but leaves a flat piece of iron between both points that is as long as the interval should amount to between both the outside triangular points of the pitch fork. He forges both prongs then at a right angle on the edge of the anvil and welds the iron at the mid point between both prongs over the first {Page 234}point and below the mortise. The prongs will finally be heated only to red and bent a little.c) The fittings for a horse consist of a horseshoe and the nails necessary for it. For the horseshoe, one cuts a piece of iron, that has approximately the breadth and length of the horseshoe, from a bar of pattern iron with the chisel [Figure XIII], gives it welding heat and forges one half first. The smith already knows to guide the iron on the anvil so that its breadth exceeds its thickness and that the end will be more narrow than the bend. As soon as one half is completely forged, then the foreman strikes against the high edge of the iron with his forging hammer, that until now is still straight and bends it by this means according to the form of a half horseshoe. Everyone knows that on each end of the horseshoe there is a peg. To form this, the foreman lays the iron in such a manner on the anvil that the end projects over the edge of the anvil which one wants to put on, and the journeyman knocks this part over with the sledgehammer. In just this instant, the iron will again be turned around on the anvil, one directs the sledgehammer onto the pegs and forges them broader. On this, the foreman sets the fuller which is similar to the chisel [Figure XIII], at the middle of each side of the horseshoe on which the pegs stand. The journeyman {Page 235}strikes the head of the hammer with the sledgehammer and the foreman moves the fuller continuously along the bending of the half horseshoe. This gives the horseshoe the groove or the indentation by which the head of the horseshoe nail will be partially covered so that they will not easily be abraded off. Who now doesn't see, that one must bore these holes through the groove through which the horseshoe nails will be driven? The dull point of the horseshoe stamp [Figure XV] stamps the holes first and then one puts the horseshoe on a block and punches the hole completely with the pointed hammer [Figure XIV]. The foreman holds the hammer and the journeyman strikes the head of the hammer with the sledgehammer. The entire job is executed by the blacksmith in a half of a quarter hour and with the same speed he forges the other half just like the first. Finally the horseshoe will be made red hot again, and finished with a hand hammer or completely smoothed up. In doing this, the holes are closed again on the side that has no groove and must therefore be opened up again with a horse shoe drift [Figure XXXVII]. A few horseshoes have a grip in the bend; that is, a small peg and this will be welded on when the shoe is already finished. The nails are sharpened by the blacksmith with the cotter hammer and he strikes the head on the horseshoe nail header [Figure XXXV b]. The manufacture {Page 236}of the nails though will be extensively discussed in the following volume. The necessities of the metal work of the horse itself has already been remarked upon in the descriptions of the tools for the fittings Page 218.d) The fittings for a coach require the greatest skill of the blacksmith and therefore one has chosen this example all the more gladly. It will be prefaced here though, so that the parts of such a town carriage are familiar to the reader. Without that, everything will not be comprehensible in spite of one having taken pains to make the parts known by descriptions.With the wheels, the artisan makes the beginning of the fittings and must furnish the surface of the wheel as well as the nave with durability with iron. 1) The felloes of the wheel can be covered in two ways, with several flat iron bars that are as long as one felloe and that the smith calls strakes or with a tire. If the strakes need to be strong, then the blacksmith selects pattern iron, that is approximately as broad as the face of the wheel, if they should be thin then he cuts the bar into two smaller rods with the chisel [Figure XIII]. In both cases, he cuts with this same instrument pieces of iron that are just as long as a felloe and first draws out of such a piece{Page 237}the half strakes along the breadth of the felloe with the sledgehammer. With the straking stamp [Figure XVIa] he pre-punches, as with the horseshoe, the holes and punches them through completely with the straking punch. In this last operation however, the strake lies not on a block but rather on the hole ring [Figure XVI b], presumably because the holes of the strake must be larger. At this point, he measures the wheel to see whether the strake is broad enough, and then forges out the other half of the strake in just this same manner. For the forward wheels, the whole strake consists of six or seven holes; for the rear wheels, eight holes. Finally each strake will be scarfed on both ends so that, upon being fit, the scarfed place on one will come to lie on the scarfed end of another strake. Through this joint a common nail is driven. When all strakes are made, then they will be completely smoothed and fastened to the wheel. Each strake will be laid red hot on the wheel in such a manner that their middle comes to lie on the joints of the two felloes. The foreman holds it in the middle with the wheel tongs [Figure XXIX] and when it projects beyond the wood on the side that is turned towards him then he sets the jaw with the hook [a] underneath against the felloe and pushes the strake back with the peg [b] of the other jaw. If the strake stands out on the opposite side then he turns{Page 238}the tongs around and draws the strake back with the hook [a]. Two journeymen at either end of the strake hook the hooks of the wheel hook [Figure XXX b] under the felloe and bend the strake according to the radius of the wheel. Through each hole of the strake a hole in the wood will be bored with the wheel drill [Figure XL] and the strake fastened with nails. The smith gives these nails a strong head in the large nail header [Figure XXXIV] easily. This job, one pursues with all strakes of wheels and fastens them not only with nails but also with by "burning in". If the surface of the wheel will be covered with a single tire, then one forges it out from only two equal sized halves, for which the strongest pattern iron will be used. The smith makes each part exactly like a strake, forges it round on the wheel, measure it off properly, and finally welds both pieces together on the beak iron [Figure XLIV]. The hoop will likewise be placed on the wheel hot and pressed into it completely with the tire hook [Figure XXXI]. The short end of the bar [b] the smith sets against the felloe, grabs the tire with the hook [c], and pulls it onto the wheel with the long end [a]. The whole will be fastened with only twelve nails in all. 2) The hollow wooden cylinder into which the axle of the wheel passes is called the nave and this must be made durable externally and internally with an iron ring.{Page 239}So that it does not spring apart, the smith lays four rings around the nave, on the raised section under the spokes on each side, one; and one on each end. Both of the former are ordinary flat rings, the latter generally amount to two or three inches in breadth and the smith gives them curved lines for decoration with the S hammer [Figure XX] and parallel lines with the tire chisel. With these rings the manufacture of rings will be described once and for all and will be prefaced for this reason. They will first be drawn out into a flat and thin bar, after which the smith bends it on the beak iron [Figure XLIV], measures it off according to the circumference of the nave, and welds it together on the same tool. All four rings of the nave will be fastened merely by being driven on. Even so it is important, that the bored out hole of the nave be preserved, that it doesn't project, and this is effected by a strong ring in the opening of the hole that the smith calls the box. One such ring is two inches thick and will be inserted into the wood because its inner circumference must run parallel to the circumference of the nave as is easily understood. The blacksmith therefore first makes a slot with the straight box chisel [Figure XLI a] and takes away as much of the wood with the curved box chisel [b] as the thickness of the ring amounts to. He makes the opening completely smooth with the box reamer [Figure XLII].{Page 240}The box will also be fastened merely by being driven on. With these processes, the smith mounts both the front and rear wheels. The chassis is particularly subjected to force and therefore the smith must confer strength to it especially by means of iron fittings. 1) Each axle he sets into two strong pieces of metal and just as many rings for durability during friction and selects for this the hardest iron. Both of the axle sheets lie half below and above the axle along its entire length. One forges them out of a piece of iron with the sledgehammers, sets the bending iron [Figure VII] in the hole of the smiths' anvil [Figure VIII] and strikes the even sheets round into the slot of the bending iron with the strong and round peen of the sledgehammer. With the sheet tongs [Figure XXXIII], the smith lays it on the axle at red heat, so that they will be completely sunken into the wood and he fastens it with small nails. On the end of the axle, the shank ring will be driven on which the smith has given two holes with a drift [Figure XXXVI] on the hole ring [Figure XVI b]. Through both of these holes and through a hole in the end of the axle, the lentil will be driven, a strong nail, that restrains the wheel so that it does not fly off. On the opposite end of the axle, a ring is placed as well that one calls the bearing ring. The wheel strikes against this ring during movement. The lentil is forged by the blacksmith like a strong nail {Page 241}and instead of a head a piece of iron is welded on that he draws out afterwards with the peen of the hammer into a sheet, the cap, and he bends it a bit with the hammer. 2) The frame of the chassis is acted upon particularly strongly by friction, and one positions an iron ring. This will be forged in two halves flat with the hammer as the horseshoe is forged, measured along a wooden border, welded together, sunken into the wood red hot and fastened with nails. 3) For just this reason, a sheet lies along the length of the stool on which a border is fastened and the surfaces of the upper frame that the stool touches directly. The sheet is called the shell sheet by the smiths. Both will be drawn from a rod, browned, burned in, and nailed on. 4) In the middle of the wooden (parts) a large hole is bored through in which a strong large nail is driven that holds the upper frame and the chassis together. One gives it a high round head that is first formed roughly, made white hot and shaped with a swage hammer [Figure XXIV and XXV]. On the lower end, the hole will be punched with a drift in order to hold the large nail fast with a small iron wedge or pin. 5) Day to day experience shows that the shaft of the wagon is held by two wooden arms. Around these one adds reinforcement by means of a thick piece of metal that they surround underneath and on both{Page 242}sides. The smith calls it the shelf band. It will be rounded on both sides following being drawn along the horns of the beak iron [Figure XLIV] so that one slides it onto the wooden arms and the shaft can lean upon them. The sheet, arms, and the shaft bores through two strong bolts and holds the latter. They will be forged like nails, and on the thin ends one gives them either a hole or a tenon if the shaft is not to be removable or, by contrast, a screw with a special rectangular nut. All screws, the blacksmith forges first like a nail, holds them in a vice and turns the threads with a screw plate [Figure XLVI]. The nut is a rectangular piece of iron in which one first punches a hole with the nut hammer [Figure XXVI] and turns the screw threads with a steel screw that fits into the hole of the screw plate, with which one has cut the screw itself. On the rectangular head of the steel tap, the smith puts the turning iron [Figure XLV] in order to comfortably turn it using its leverage. This applies to all screws in the following text. 6) On the forward end of the shaft two sheets are laid over and beneath as was done for the production of the axles and on the outer ends a ring will be driven on. A strong rod bores through this and the shaft that{Page 243}holds the thick strap on the harness of the horses tightly. 7) On both the arms that the shaft holds, a wooden spring level lies on which the horses of the wagon pull. They are fastened onto the arms with two strong screws and will be held on each end by a rod that the smiths call the stroke rod. The rod and all remaining rods of this type that will be named in the following text, the blacksmith either forges round or, following the present fashion, hexagonal and gives these knobs here and there that decorate bars of the architectural type. In forging the rods, the smith leaves thick pieces remaining for the knobs that will be merely formed roughly by the peen of the hammer. The German knobs are only short and flat, the French, however, which at present are very fashionable, are long and very highly raised. With this prefaced, now the origin of these bars will be illustrated. The smith first forges a part of the bar up to the finial, then lays the bar on the anvil in such a way that the outermost end of the section lies on the edge, strikes with the sledgehammer on the place which rests directly on the edge of the anvil, gradually turns the bar around and by this means makes one elevated projecting part. When all parts of the rod have been suitably worked with the hammer, then one smooths the thin parts that are to be square or hexagonal with a{Page 244}smoothing hammer [Figure XIIa,b] and the knobs are smoothed in the swage hammer [Figure XXIV,XXV]. The processes for doing this have already been described in the foregoing (text). Finally the bars will be clamped in the vice and completely finished with the file. The rod of which we were actually speaking is straight and has a bent flap on one end though on the other end is a longish round piece of metal. The flap lies on the strong wood between both axles and in a hole of the flap and the axle a screw is put with its nut that holds the rod tightly to this end. The piece of metal at the other end will be beaten around the spring bar and fastened with nails. On each end of the spring balance and in the middle of every spring tree bar on which the harness of the horse will hang a staple is struck in that holds the strap tightly through which the spring balance and the spring tree bar will be united. 8) Finally there is a thick sheet, the mud sheet, which is driven on the end of each forward axle on the strong central wood whose purpose one already perceives from the appellation. Immediately on the chassis, the box rests and because this automatically catches the eye, the smith thus takes particular care in its decoration. 1) If it is wooden, then it is held fast by eight strong screws. Two fasten the box to the chassis, two go between the footboards that also are covered by sheet iron, two through the stool and two through the saddle wood. 2) The forks are two irons on the posts of the box, that bear the harness, on which the box cushion rests. For this purpose, they are bent into a circle on the beak iron on both ends. On the tourist carriage, the forks and the posts are made of iron. 3) On both sides, the box will be held by two decorative rods, to which the smith gives the form of a Latin S. They will be made like a rod and are bent free hand on the anvil with the hammer. Each has a flap on both ends through which the hole for the screw passes, which fastens it to the coach. Both of the forward bars on each side of the box rest on the underside on the prop of the box and above, it leans on the brackets of the box. The smith calls this the box joist. The bar underneath the box is called the bearing joist and rests above on the stool and below against the bearing wood. 4) Two straight bars of just this type stand under the carriage. They are called the mid joists and hold the stool and the saddle wood together. 5) The board below the box, which one calls the forward baggage board is screwed on with four screws and on both narrow edges a metal sheet is nailed on. 6) This{Page 246}same part will be held to the beam of the box with six strong screws.Beneath the trunk, or the actual coach, the 1) windlass can be noticed, with which one can pull in the straps that the box carries. Each strap is fastened at the front under the box on a spindle and at the rear on the windlass mentioned above. Indeed this is called a windlass in common speech but there is nothing other than one or two cog wheels next to each other with a click pawl. For each windlass there are two ordinary iron arms on the rear axle screwed on with a special screw for each arm, that passes through the axle or on a decorative rod that has two arms above. In both cases there is a round hole on the end of each arm in which a movable spindle runs. On each end of the spindle the arms, which stand out from each other the breadth of the reins, project beyond two round pulleys on a peg that is held tightly by a nut. In a German windlass only one disc has teeth; with the French, both do. From the cog wheels to the click, the manufacture of all the named parts of the windlass are completely understood from the foregoing text. The cog wheel is forged from one piece of iron into a round sheet and annealed because one cuts teeth with a chisel cold, and finishes it with a file. The{Page 247}teeth are turned against the rear axle, and therefore in this wood a click or, to use the term of the smith, the lip, must be fastened. The lip for the German windlass holds a joint on the axle. So that it can catch the teeth all the better, they thus have an angled slot at the front that is cut cold. The smith drives the whole thing out a bit with the wedge hammer [Figure XXIII b]. Both of the cog wheels of the French windlass have a common click that consists merely of broad bare sheet that is fastened at the bottom with a clamp and above is bent against the teeth of the wheels. With both types of windlasses there is a pointed hook in the middle of the spindle that is put through a hole in the straps. The smith strikes a hole through the spindle with a drift [Figure XXXVI], sticks the tenon of the hook through this hole and rivets it. 2) Between both windlasses, the footman step is fastened immovably onto the rear carriage with two strong screws. One forges it out of an iron rod, and bends both arms on the edge of the anvil and sharpens them a bit. The smith gives both arms flaps with the hammer through which the holes for the screws will be struck with a drift. 3) The rear baggage board will likewise be held fast with a screw and on both sides strong metal hand grips will be screwed on, onto which{Page 248}the servant takes hold when he jumps onto the carriage. The smith first gives the handgrip its familiar form with a hammer when he has formed the thin parts with a smooth hammer [Figure XIII] and the molding in the middle with a swage hammer [Figure XXIV, XXV] beforehand. Each handle will be held with two screws and the sheet with one and all these screws bore through the baggage board and rear axle. 4) Ahead of the baggage board stand further wooden decorations so the smith provides two such supports like the box supports.In front of each door of the body, two strong iron steps pass through the beam and are held tightly on their inner end by a screw. It is a very strong nail or bolt that bears the leather step. Not to mention other small parts, there is yet the swing ring to mention finally, rings that are fastened by a link on the body and unite the body with the beam by means of a strap.Note: The locksmith in Berlin makes nothing more on the coach other than the flying latch and the "Fish bands" on the door that are found at their places.B. For the cutting implements that the smith makes belong besides the cooking knives, the ax, the hatchet, and scythe.{Page 249}The forging of the last pieces belongs in this text because these instruments are the commonest. a) For an axe, the smith takes the broadest pattern iron and draws it out to exactly the breadth of the ax or yet just as long. He sees by this the bit of the ax and the iron plate how should be beaten together. Therefore he forges it at welding heat a bit thinner on both narrow ends, thin at the middle. He leaves this piece of metal, when it has the described form and forges a piece of steel according to the breadth of the ax and corresponding to the thickness of its edge. At this point he makes the iron red hot again and beats it together in such a manner that both the thin areas lie over each other but places the steel between both the beaten together ends, so that the steel projects a bit. He brings both metals in this position into the coals and up to welding heat and welds them together. Just above an opening remains for the handle hole and in this opening he puts the handle mandrel [Figure XLVIII]. On this tool he can give the heated iron its required shape externally with the hammer, and the handle hole itself takes on the form of the handle rod at the same time.b) The forging of a hatchet differs little from the manufacture of the ax. The {Page 250}iron, out of which the smith will forge, will likewise be at once as long extended under the hammer as the length of the hatchet, only it will be welded together without the steel lying between. The right side of the hatchet, he hollows out a bit with the peen of the hammer, the left remains even, and on this side the steel will be welded on. It must be forged appropriately as with the ax and be fluxed and scarfed beforehand. The handle hole will be forged out as with the ax.c) The iron for the scythe, the smith forms according to the familiar form, and gives it a tang behind which will be beaten around and caught on the edge of the anvil. On the same tool, he bends the tip a bit round. The steel, he forges also along the length of the scythe, cleans the iron and steel, and welds both metals together on the smooth side of the scythe. Then he lays the heated scythe on the edge of the anvil and catches the back with the peen or a set hammer, so that he bends the back around a bit. Normally the cutting instruments are marked by the marking hammer [Figure XXII]. In grinding all these pieces there is nothing more to mention other than that one presses first hard and finally though when the grade is made, softly {Page 251}against the grindstone and the instrument is turned around often.VI. The farrier and armorer learn their trade in two years if they pay an apprenticeship fee; without it, though, they serve four years. Their journeyman travel, as usual, three years and in every work place their masters present six Pfennigs or one Groeschen if they find no work at a place. Their masterpiece consists of two horseshoes, a pitch fork, and an ax.
Harold // 5:04 AM
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[BigBody]
Harold // 5:04 AM
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TRADES AND ARTS The LocksmithCopyright: Harold B. Gill, III; 1991Peter N. SprengelHandwerke und KuensteVolume 6 Section 2{Page 23}The LocksmithI. Contents. In the workshop of the locksmith, many more decorative works are manufactured beyond those produced in the blacksmiths' shop. He forges his products using iron and steel with hammer and anvil yet, in addition, he gives these metals ingenious forms with chisels, files, die stocks, swages, and other different tools. Generally he occupies himself with the metalwork of doors, windows, and chests, among which the locks merit particular mention. It is somewhat easier for skillful locksmiths to manufacture the works of the remaining decorative iron workers who will be mentioned in the following sections and one can rightly say that from these all of these other artisans originate. It will have a great influence on the next sections when the ability necessary for locksmithing is brought to light.Note: In this and in part in the last section of the previous volume the splendid description of the locksmith from Mr. Duehamel in the ninth part of Der Schauplatz der Kuenste und Handwerke has done good service. {Page 24}Also, nothing has been borrowed from this writing until it had been shown to a skilled local locksmith for advice, because the French and German tradesmen often deviate from one another in their processes.II. Familiarity with the majority of materials of the locksmith can be assumed from the last section of the former volume.A. The reader will recall from that section that the locksmith can use the soft iron (Volume 5 p.200). For a few works he purchases iron sheet of different strengths that he recieves from the local iron forge.B. He works steel only for springs and in the making of his tools (Volume 5 p.202). C. Copper is used in soldering strong work and he facilitates the flow of this metal not with borax, but with pulverized glass instead with the same result and no expense. D. The tiny pieces, he solders with brass and here he also uses pulverized glass. Plates on the lock are made of strong brass sheet and he sometimes covers the iron metalwork with thinner sheets of this type. E. Coal and charcoal, he uses to heat the iron (Volume 5 p. 203.){Page 25}III. A large space to accomodate the materials to be used will serve as the workshop of the locksmith. Only the ordinary materials can be addressed since the locksmith often manufactures tools in special situations that one can find in the least shop. Meanwhile, many have been described already with the blacksmith.A. The locksmith generally forges only thin iron pieces and therefore their forge is only a small forge. He must however heat large bars in a few instances so he lays another stone on the bellows and by this means augments the strength and the momentum of this instrument. To the forge belongs a quenching trough, coal wisp, coal hooks, poker, and sand ladle as with the blacksmiths.B. During forging, the ordinary smiths tongs of the blacksmiths are indispensible, though they are somewhat smaller in this shop. Furthermore, here one sees pinch tongs for mountings, sharp and broad tongs for all his products.C. The anvils in this shop are of three types; 1) The smiths' anvil [Plate I, Figure VIII] is smaller than the anvil of the blacksmith since it weighs not more than two hundredweight. On the narrow side, a horn [a] arises since the locksmith{Page 26}must often hold this tool with his hand while forging. On the same side also, there is a hole [b] on the face in which spring forks, supports of the swages and other small tools will be fixed. In the anvil stump, a chisel [c] is fixed also. The beak iron and stock anvil stand on a small anvil stump next to the workbench, an ordinary strong table on which the small tools of the locksmith lie. 2) The beak iron [Figure IX] is only half as large as the blacksmith's and has a round and a four edged horn as is well known. On the work table, there are smaller tools of this type. 3) The smooth face of the block anvil (teest) [Figure X] is about a half foot square. Its purpose is that the iron is laid on it when one polishs it or works it with the hammer cold.D. The locksmith also welds the iron with cross peen and sledge hammers that weigh between 25 and 30 pounds. One can easily see that he cannot do without the sledge hammer, cold chisel, chisel, pointed hammer, and the smooth hammer of the blacksmith. Volume 5 p. 207.E. The chisel. 1) One breaks up the iron cold with the hard chisel, and therefore its broad cutting edge must be well steeled. For this same operation he also uses 2) the bench chisel [Figure XIV] {Page 27}that is just a bit smaller than the former. The appearence of these instruments is common knowledge and it just remains to be mentioned that a few cut straight and, with others, the cut is half round. 3) Some cross chisels runs together at one end to a point [Figure XII] and some have their edge cut away obliquely [Figure XIII]. Both types have at [a] a small broad point with which the fittings in the key bit of the lock can be cut out cold. 4) The set chisel [Figure XV] is the set hammer of the blacksmith. One will still remember that an opening or cut out in the iron will be made with this, for example, in the forging of the knobs on the rods.F. The sheet shears are exactly like the bench shears that have already been described. It is stronger though and doesn't stand as the copper and brass worker's do on a stump, but their shank will be clamped in a vice instead when one wants to cut up iron or brass sheet.G. The description of the vice is on page 215 of the preceding volume. They are needed in this shop more frequently, than they are in the blacksmith shop and therefore one notices a special German and French vice on the workbench of each worker. Small pieces will be held fast in a file vice [Figure XVI] in his hand. It is a small vice that instead of having a spindel of the{page 28}large vices often has a brass wing nut (a). The form and use of the ring vice has already been described on page 9 of Volume 5.Note: The ironworkers can indeed make their own vices, as they are compelled to see if they are to repair an injury, only they save the cost and difficulty if they buy this tool. In the Duchy of Bergen in Westphalia are locksmiths that branch off into just the smithing of vices and they sell these to the remaining locksmiths by weight. One pays four Gr. for each pound.H. What the blacksmiths call swage hammers are called swages by the locksmiths. It is therefore not necessary to repeat the description of these tools, but this must be said; the locksmith needs these instruments in more instances than the blacksmith. They shape not only the knobs on decorated rods with these tools but, in addition to these, the locksmiths even all kinds of elegant knobs in the swages; for example, the knobs on the grip of the French key, the handle of the doors and chests, indeed even the wood screws and many other items of manufufacture that would be tiresome to work with the file making them an important tool. Therefore, frequently they make a swage for these products and in this way save much time and difficulty. The swages of the locksmith also consist of a hammer {page 29}and a bottom swage. Volume 5 Page 210. Only with the key swage [Figure XVIII] is a hammer unnecessary but a mandrel takes its place instead. The key swage is a small anvil on whose face half cylindrical depressions of different sizes are made. The locksmith bends the flat sheet iron into a tube in this instrument. They bend the heated iron with a hammer around a round mandrel, lay it in a depression in the key swage that fits it, and turn it continually around and strike steadily on the piece of metal with a hammer. By this means the heated sheet takes on the form of the depression. Therefore the locksmith possesses a great quantity of mandrels of all types. The tubes of the German keys will be forged round in this type of swage and from this, the tool has received its name (key swage).The swages can easily be manufactured. The locksmith files the knob for which he wants to form a swage out of steel completely and forges the swage hammer with the swage block out of steel as well. He always gives the bottom swage a square tang [Figure XVIII a] because one sets this during use in a hole of the smith's anvil [Figure VIII b] and the bottom swage is fastened by this. In the manufacture of this tool one makes the face of the swage block white hot, lays the filed knob that is the pattern on the middle of the face of the swage block and drives{page 30}it halfway into the metal with a hammer. Therefore the knob must be separated into two pieces already along its length. The swage hammer will be heated similarly and, into the middle of its face, the other half of the knob will be driven. The key swage of the locksmith will be manufactured in just this way using round mandrels of different thicknesses. The swages give the large iron an decorative design.I. The die stocks of the sheets and screws. The window die stock [Figure XVII 1,2,] is two narrow but strong iron plates that are rivetted together at [a] and [b] so that one can just stick a piece of thick sheet iron into the cleft between them. Both plates have the familiar form of the flap on the hasp of a window and the size is also trimmed like this piece of hardware. The plates out of which the flaps originate will be forged from iron and placed into the gap of the die stock in such a way that it projects a bit on all sides from the die stock. The die stock will then be clamped with the sheet in its cleft in the vice and the projecting band of the sheet will be taken off on both sides with the cold chisel and hammer following the length of the die stock. One easily notices that by this operation, the sheet has taken on the shape of the die stock. Half of the die stock is steeled on the interior so that the chisel does not injure it. Small pieces of this type are always elaborated in die stocks or follow{Page 31}sheet metal patterns. From here, a more convenient piece will yet be spoken of, 2) With the cutting die stock, the locksmith cuts pointed wood screws [Figure XX]. They closely resemble shears except that the narrow surfaces at [a,b] rest precisely on one another. These surfaces are made of steel and together form female screws of various sizes. The thick end of a pointed peg that one wants to turn into a wood screw, the locksmith lays in a hole of the screw stock, presses both pieces of the stock tightly together by their grips and twists the peg with the tongs out of the hole of the stock. Both halves of the stock are united only by a rivet at [a], therefore they are positioned as close to each other as the thickness of the peg and together they cut the screw threads into the peg. 3) The key stock [Figure XIX] is a small piece of metal that is bent following a figure that the eye can see best in the illustration. One holds the bit of the key with these when the arrangement of the key is going to be cut out with the cross chisel. The bit lies on both surfaces at [a]. The stock will be clamped in a vice and thereby the bit will be prevented from being able to give way during this work.K. The frame saw [Figure XXI] is saw that is forged of the hardest steel and is fastened in an iron bow [adc]. The saw blade itself [ab] has a small rectangular hole on each end{Page 32}through which tiny pegs on the frame hook at [a] and [b] and through which the side of the frame can be fastened. Meanwhile, there are also pegs beneath [a] and [b] that fasten crosswise. By means of a screw [bc] which grips the bow at [b], the saw blade [ab] can be stretched more since with the hard iron it must be fastened tightly, with soft iron though it must be gently tensioned. The sawing of iron is a tiresome job and therefore one uses this instrument only when one can find no other suitable device. The saw blade [ab] must be well hardened and for this the locksmith has a special instrument, the stretching frame [Figure XXIII] because the steel rolls up in hardening when it is not stretched out. The stretching frame is made entirely of iron and the arm [cbd] will be set in merely by a peg in the hole [c]. At [a] and [b] are hooks by which the saw blade will be tightly held and extended by the arm [cbd]. The saw blade will be best hardened like all other instruments if one burns powdered oxen hoofs on the steel that are spread on it and the metal is allowed to get red hot and is cooled in water. With this work, the greasiness of the horn serves best.L. With the bow jig [Figure XXIV, XXV] the pegs of the bow or handle of the German keys will be struck into the shanks.{Page 33}During this operation, the slot in the middle of this instrument lies on the interior tip of the bow.M. The files are among the most useful tools of the locksmith and therefore he owns small and large ones of various types. The most important are those with which the large surfaces are polished. 1.) Among these are the strongest rubbers [Figure XXVIII]. They are 1.5 feet long and as wide as they are thick. In the forepart it is narrower and its cut is the coursest. These as well as all other files have a wooden handle. With the remaining files of this type, The breadth is greater than the thickness and their length including the courseness of their cut gradually decreases. According to these attributes, these follow, one after another: 2.) The Hand files [Figure XXIX]; 3.) The rough files [Figure XXX]; 4.) the smooth files [Figure XXXI]. The last has a cut so fine that one can hardly notice them. Small things and cavities are filed by the locksmith with small files of various forms; flat, round, half-round, triangular, etc. If a place is to remain unpolished after filing then he wraps up a part of the file with paper.Note: The largest rubbers weigh in at 20 pounds. In contrast 20 small files go into 1 pound.{Page 34}N. The burnisher [Figure XL] resembles a thick partially bent wire of steel on a wooden grip. The locksmith seldom uses it and then only on small articles.O. The header [Figure XLI] is already familiar enough from the previous section as is P. The die stock with its handles for the manufacture of screws with their female screws that are described already in the last section of the preceding volume.Q. Large holes, the locksmith forges into the iron with a drift, a tapering steel [Figure XXXIII]. For very large holes the iron is laid upon a hole ring [Figure XXXII]; for smaller ones, upon a hole disk [Figure XLII] (Vol. 5 p. 214). The drift is driven with the hammer.R. Small holes, the artisans bore with different bits. 1.) The bit of the locksmith is just stronger and longer than the same tool of the brass worker. 2.) The brace [Figure XXXVIII] is exactly the same as the cabinetmaker's brace except that its frame is also made of iron. The iron disc [a] moves on a peg and is placed on the chest when drilling. The bit [cd] which will actually make the hole can be taken out and in return {Page 35}large or small bits can be fastened in. With both drills, the bit must often be doused with oil during use. Holes that are to be the same width all the way through will be drilled out this way and also merely widened. The last goal the locksmith also reaches with 3.) The scraping awl [Figure XLIII], a four edged drift.S. The mandrel is already known well enough. One sees square and round, small and large in rather considerable number in the locksmith's shop. In widening the large holes with a mandrel, the iron will also be laid on a hole ring [Figure XXXII].T. The punch chisel of the locksmith [Figure XXVII] closely resembles a pointed hammer. Its dull steel point is round in a few cases, in others half-round, or also oval. The locksmith uses these for the same purpose as the remaining metalworkers use the punches; namely to chase out the iron of the metal fittings of a trunk, for example. The thin iron lies on a lead table during this work and the punch chisel is driven by a hammer. Therefore it also has a head.U. The crescent has received its name because of its form [Figure XXVI]. They have a handle and a head like the punch chisel but, instead of a dull point as on the latter, this one receives a half-round sharp chisel resembling a crescent. In the manufacture of a wrought iron railing SPRENGWERKE, they must do excellent service together with the {Page 36}V. Spring fork. This tool consists of two pieces. The first part projects like a strong fork [Figure XXXIXb]. In use its tenon will be put into the hole of the smith's anvil. The fork of the other part [Figure XXXIX a] makes a right angle with its iron handle.W. The wrenchs are each familiar as an iron with a square ring on each end through which female screws will be tightened; as is also the screwdriver as a stick that one sets in the slot on the head of a woodscrew, if one wants to take it out.X. On the rivetting iron [Figure XXXV], a square iron with a steel face, the locksmith lays the head of the rivet during riveting if he can not do otherwise.Y. The star wedge [Figure XXXVI] has foremost a broad and sharpened point like a small chisel, because one strikes the sheet cold with this as it will yield underneath.Z. The Ring chisel [Figure XXXVII] is cut out on one end like an arc and has an edge on the outermost point. It will be needed in making fish bands on doors.AA. The tire iron one grips next to a long sheet in a hoop vise if one wants to file the sheet so that it will not bend [Figure XLIV]. {Page 37}BB. The corer [Figure XXXIV] is a pointed hammer with a dull point that is rounded like a half sphere. It is used if one wants to punch large holes.CC. Picklocks of d sizes on a ring [Figure XLV], the locksmith calls closing tools. Therefore he also says that he has closed a lock when he has opened it.IV. The metalwork on the buildings, trunks, and warddrobes occupy the locksmith most of the time. Therefore one will seek to bring them to light thoroughly. The remaining ordinary work of the locksmith will be easily explained then out of the description of these pieces. Beforehand there are only two other things to mention: 1) It is originally the locksmith's work to make all the iron work of a building, be it for durability or for decoration, excepting the largest armatures for which his forge is to small. These therefore must be left to the blacksmith. 2) The description of the welding and forging of the iron is provided by the last part of the former volume, page 225 every time in the following text. A. The beginning will be the metal work of a door with a French lock and with fish bands.{Page 38}a) It is not a lie that one leaves home far more securely with a French lock on the door than with a German one and of this, at least in Berlin, one is already convinced by the fact that the local locksmiths make German locks only rarely. It cannot well be taken for granted that every arrangement and mechanism of such locks is known and therefore it is important to mention first something about both developments. The manufacture of the parts will be shown all the easier. An illustration is indespensible in this and [Figures XLVI, XLVII, XLVIII, XLIX] will therefore make all the parts of the lock comprehensible. [Figure XLVI] presents the lock as it appears when one opens it. [Figure XLVII] is the removed cover of the lock and [Figure XLVIII] is the bolt of the lock with the tumbler shown in a turned position. The tumbler lies at bottom; the bolt, above; in contrast, in [Figure XLVI] the tumbler is above and the bolt lies under this. [Figure XLIX] is the French key. All parts of the lock are surrounded by a four sided box of sheet iron [Figure XLVI abc]. The floor and the upright sheet [ac] is bent from one piece and together is called the lock sheet. On the sheet [ac], the brim STULPE is rivetted on, a thin iron rod that is as broad as the side sheet but a little longer. The remaining periphery of the floor surrounds the side sheet [abc] or the{Page 39}border. It is bent from a narrow sheet and holds the floor and the cover [Figure XLVII] together by means of a few small irons with pegs on both ends like [a] and [b]. Therefore the border must be as high as the brim sheet [ac]. The cover is merely a flat plate as large as the lock sheet. It will be put on first when the locksmith fastens the lock and then holds all the parts together along with the lock plate. Therefore, for each pin of [Figure XLVI] one notices a hole in the cover [Figure XLVII]. With the help of the letters in the [Figures XLVI and XLVII], the reader can easily distinguish in the following text which pin belongs to which hole of the cover.The lock depicted consists of the actual lock in the middle, a spring latch above and a night bolt under the actual lock. 1) The most important part of the lock is the bolt of which one can only see the upper part in [Figure XLVI] however, because the rest is obscured by the tumbler. Only in [Figure XLVIII] is it completely revealed. The head of the bolt is indicated by [gh] which is apparently somewhat thicker than the shank [gf]. When one locks the lock the head grips into the lock plate on the door post. In the middle of the shank is a narrow slot [ik] and at [m] a rod in this slot allows the bolt to shift back and forth. Instead of this, a few locksmiths give the bolt{Page 40}a STUDEL the description of which will appear with that of the springing latch. The rod [g] holds a narrow brass piece, the tensioning spring tightly under the bolt, which prevents the bolt from being easily pushed back. On top, as well as underneath, the bolt has slots. On the undermost, the bit of the key grips the bolt and therefore one calls it the bolt toe [lm]. The uppermost are called spreaders [no]. The tumbler fastens in these last indentations of the bolt. A few locksmiths give the bolt three spreaders, only on the illustrated lock the end of the bolt shows the location of the third. The tumbler [Figure XLVI, XLVIII pqr] holds the bolt firmly both when the lock is open and when it is locked and at the same time prevents it from being opened by the pick lock. It consists of a small spring [pq], the foremost part of which [q] rests on the bolt and therefore it must be as broad as the bolt and made out of a strong lug [qr] that makes a right angle to the spring and projects at [r] somewhat below the bolt. The end [p] of the upper part of the tumbler represents the position of a spring and is therefore wound around a rectangular rod. A few locksmiths make the tumbler and spring out of two separate pieces and in this case the spring rests on the tumbler. At [q], the spring has a right angled catch that falls into the spreader [n,o,] and holds the bolt fast. He calls the spreader the tumbler. {Page 41}In [Figure XLVI], the lug of the tumbler lies above; in [Figure XLVII] though it is under the bolt while in the last illustration the bolt is represented turned. The mechanism is located under the bolt [Figure XLVI vtuw]. It insures that not just any key that can be inserted into the lock, locks the lock. It consists of the MITTELBRUCH [tu] which runs parallel to the floor of the lock and stops just short of the bolt toe of the bolt, of two small supports [t and u] that bear the MITTELBRUCH sheet and it stands approximately half of the diameter of the sweep of the bit of the key from the floor of the lock, and of the wards, one or two upright sheets of metal that are bent into a semicircle and end at [v] and [w]. These peices of metal encircle a hole in the middle breach, MITTELBRUCH into which the key fits, because the round circle of the key hole for the shank of the key in the floor sheet, runs parallel to the hole in the middle breach. Properly, the wards in every lock will be different so that it just stops the bit of a strange key so that it cannot reach the tumbler and bolt. Therefore, for a few locksmiths, they consist of only one narrow piece of metal, for others of two circles. Occasionally these pieces have catchs and, in a few, wards so the round piece of metal does not stand vertically but it slants onto the middle breach sheet instead. Although it is not possible to tell of all the variations of wards,{Page 42}because it depends on the licence of the master. One still notices just that below the middle breach lies a wards of precisely the size as on the sheet. In the illustrated lock it was only a circle of sheet that had catchs on both sides. This can best be seen in the form of the bit of the key [Figure XLIX]. A French key is forged out of one piece of iron and consists of a bow [ab], the shank [bc], and the bit [dc]. It is well known that the bit of the key has indentations that correspond precisely to the construction of the lock [Figure XLVI vtuw] that must be cut out. If one turns the key around in the lock then the middle breach [Figure XLVI tu] falls into the indentation of the bit [Figure XLIX fg] and the arrangement of the key siezes the wards of the lock [Figure XLVI vw]. Therefore both must correspond to each other exactly, but failing that, the key will not be able to turn around. The form of the bit on the key illustrated also requires a ward that consists of a curved piece of metal with two catchs. One will easily see this in the drawing. The bit of the key shown is somewhat bent and by this means one can also keep strange keys out of a lock, because the key hole each time has exactly the same form of the shank and the bit of its key.{Page 43} Presently the mechanism will be easily illustrated. When one turns the key to the right in the lock and it is locked then half of the bit drops under and the other half goes over the middle breach [Figure LXVI tu]. The middle breach and wards [vw] of the lock occupy the mechanism [Figure XLIX gf] completely and also the wards of the bit of the key. The lug of the tumbler [Figure XLVI sqr] projects at [sr] a little in front of the bolt and also holds open the upper half of the bit so that the lower half cannot make contact with the bolt toe of the bolt [Figure XLVIII lm] until the upper half of the bit has pushed the lug of the tumbler upwards. As soon as this happens however then it can move the bolt at [Figure XLVIII r] and drive it back. One turns the key around again so that it again leaves the bolt thus the catchs again fall into the slot [Figure XLVIII n] and again hold the bolt fast. The lock also will not be opened until one turns the key a second time this again lifts up the tumbler, grips the bolt at [Figure XLVIII m], and slides it back completely. Then the catch [q] falls into the slot [o] and therefore it follows that the bolt stands fast when the lock is open as well. In locking, all of this is simply reversed and the catchs hold the bolt fast finally at [f]. Presently one will also examine why the locksmith cannot unlock the French lock with a pick lock. {Page 44} Because the pick lock grips the lug of the tumbler [Figure XLVIII qr] thus he cannot at the same time slide back the bolt [lh]. He catches the bolt toe of the bolt [lm] so it is impossible to slide back the bolt because it holds the tumbler fast. The locksmith must understand the art of applying two picklocks at the same time. 2) The springing latch is much simpler than the lock and it is therefore easier to survey. Its purpose is to hold the door closed when the lock is open. As is well known, it will be opened with a handle. One places it as in the illustration above the lock. The name is taken from the German handle that can rightly be called a latch. All bolts including the bolt of the springing latch [Figure XLVI ABC] have at the front, a head and behind, a shank. By means of their catchs [BC] it moves itself within the STUDEL [DE] and therefore it must have a head at [C] so that it does not fall out of the STUDEL. The STUDEL resembles a small clasp and is fastened at each foot to the lock plate by a rivet. Behind the catch of the bolt rests the outer end of a spring [EG] that at [G] is wound around a square peg as well. The nut [H] is an iron cylinder with a square hole and a tip which grips the catch of the bolt at [C].{Page 45}The tang of the handle sticks through the square hole and if one turns this downwards then the tip of the nut grasps the bolt at [C] and pushs it back. The door is then open. If one takes his hand from the handle, then the spring [EG] pushs the bolt back again. 3) The night bolt likewise consists of a bolt [IK] that has a catch at [K]. Then the bolt will be held as with the bolt of the springing latch with a small STUDEL [L]. In the lock illustrated, a nut is at [M] whose tip fastened into a slot of the bolt at [N] and the bolt closed or opened. Among other locksmiths there is a smaller knob instead on the bolt itself and in the cover of the lock there is a slot in order to allow the bolt to be slid back and forth. Under the night bolt is a small brass spring also which will not allow it to recede at all at a thrust on the door.At present, the manufacture of a lock can be presented because the reader is acquainted with its parts.A. On the key and especially on its bit the entire arrangement of a lock depends, and therefore the locksmith makes it first. He forges it from a measured piece of iron that he as always must carefully weld so that it is not scaled off in filing. The bit he shapes by {Page 46}forging with an added piece at both ends and the bow or a handle by means of a yet stronger doubled piece added under the bow. In this operation, he lays the place of the iron on which he will form an added piece on the edge of the smith's anvil [Figure VIII] and strikes the metal with the hammer. He repeats this, for example, on both ends of the bit so that a peg results for the bit out of which one can draw it to the required length with a hammer. Using this same procedure, he allows two pegs for the bow to be made of. The last peg he forges in a somewhat flattened form and gives it a rounded periphery with the hammer. In the mean time, he can forge the shank into a properly round shape between the bow and the bit also. Finally the bow will again be brought to red heat, a hole will be punched with a mandrel in the center and it will be forged completely round on the round horn of the stake. As is well known, the bow is not cylndrical but somewhat flat on top. One therefore places a piece of iron on [b] and [k] of [Figure XLIX] and knocks the bow down a bit at these places. One give it a few more blows at [a] in addition so that it recieves its familiar longish round shape. After the forging, the key will be annealed merely in the coals, because all that remains must be done cold and in this the file always serves best. Therefore it is important to first premise the general basis of how{Page 47}the locksmith must dexterously guide the file and then apply them to the key. The iron, whose surface one wishs to polish with the file, the locksmith always clamps into a vice and holds it fast this way; the surfaces being only flat or round. Should large pieces be polished, then one bends them around a bit at one end and the jaws of the vice hold the bent part. Failing that the piece will not be held fast in the vice. First an even surface will be filed. One always begins this work with the coarse files [Figure XXVIII]. The locksmith holds the handle of the file with his right hand and he lays his left hand on the tip. In filing, he must each time guide this tool in this way, as if he wants to touch just the middle of the surface because he often files the sides thinner than the middle to his vexation and the surface will then be lumpy. The second rule is: The file must never takes its alignment parallel with the sides of the circumference, because through this the surfaces will likewise be unequal, rather the file strokes must constantly be made at a sharp angle to the sides of the circumference. Third rule: The strokes of the file must each time cross the strokes of the former likewise at a sharp angle, so that on every side just as much is taken off the surfaces and the file marks of the former file are again removed. Thus when the coarse files are aligned from [c] to [a] on {Page 48}[Figure XLVII] for example then the sheet must be enclosed in a vice, so that one can file from [b] to [d] with the hand file. In just this manner, the rough and smooth file must take a different path on the iron each time. The cut of these files becomes progressively finer and therefore they make surfaces gradually smoother. The last rule is: One must never take a different file before until the file that the locksmith used up until this time has removed the marks of the former file; for example, the hand file must have removed all the marks of the coarse file first before the locksmith can take up the rough file. When all three course files have been used then the locksmith takes up the smooth file [Figure XXXI] on both ends and strokes back and forth with the file on the surfaces. This gives the iron a complete polish. The locksmith calls this the stripping of the iron. If a surface is to receive a better polish still, then it is just abraded with iron scale, then sometimes (very rarely) he uses tripoli, emery, and other sharp abrasives. On round surfaces, for example, the bow and shaft of a key, all of this remains the same as with the plain surfaces except that the file changes its alignment at every point. When the bit and the small knob at the end of the shank belonging to it are worked out with the file, one then rubs them down with the burnisher [Figure XL] and finally burnishes the bow [Figure XLIX ab] so that the traces of the file marks do not offend the hand{Page 49}of the future owner. Under the bow the file gives the key a knob which is rubbed and smoothed after the filing between two wooden pieces with olive oil. The most trouble caused by the key is in the mechanism and the wards. The slots of the mechanism EINRICHTUNG [Figure XLIX fg] are made by the locksmith with the frame saw [Figure XXI] and during this work the vice holds the key fast. First, however, the bit must be divided exactly into two parts beforehand with the compass because the mechanism is separated into two equal halves. In the manufacture of the wards [hi] the file cannot be used, instead they must be cut with the cross chisel [Figure XII]. The narrow sharp edges [a] of this instrument are only just as broad as the slots of the wards. In doing this, one lays the bit of the key between the arms of the key clamp [Figure XIX a] and clamps this in the vice. The hammer drives the cross chisel and therefore both the hooks of the clamp must hold that lie on the jaws of the vice so that the clamp does not give way because of the blows of the hammer.B. Following the manufacture of the key, the locksmith moves on to the case, which surrounds the parts of the lock that on both sides will open up. He will stick this together from three pieces of iron sheet; the lock plate, the border, and the cover.{Page 50}The sheet shears or the chisel [Figure XI] give the sheets their form. From the text above, the reader will still recall, that the brim sheet STULPBLECH [Figure LXVI ac] is held together with the floor. One turns up these perpendicular raised sheets in the vice because in this way their height can best be adjusted, or also on the edge of the anvil. Mainly it is true for all sheets that they are bent cold and put on when they are forged of wrought iron, failing that one must heat it though. Even this is important for the border [abc]. This narrow sheet holds together the lock plate and the cover [Figure XLVII] and simply needs to be cut out. With this intention, the locksmith fastens six narrow pieces of iron on the side of the border sheet [Figure XLVI abc] that are a little longer than the border sheet is broad so that they project from the side of the border sheet that one has rivetted it on. Out of both protruding ends, the locksmith files pegs that will be fastened and rivetted into the holes of the cover [Figure XLVII abc] and in the same such holes of the lockplate when the entire lock is finished. The narrow iron itself [Figure XLVI abc] will be united with the border by a rivet. The holes for this rivet, one punches with a drift [Figure XXXIII] on the hole disk [Figure XLII] as with all other holes in the sheet. The holes{Page 51}for the particular rivets are only different from the rest in that they must be a bit wider on the outside of the periphery than on the inside and this can easily be effected with the reaming awl [Figure XLIII] or the bit [Figure XXXVIII]. The reason that one widens the outer circumference of the hole in this case is in order to sink the head of the rivet during the rivetting into the broader area; that is , to hide the rivet in it so that it cannot be easily noticed when it is smoothed over with a file. The rivet itself is a rod or the end of a wire. It only remains to be mentioned that the key hole is a cut with the cold chisel and after this rough finished with round and flat files. The dampness is a harmful enemy of iron, because from it a rust results on the metal and therefore the iron worker seeks to repel the moisture with an oily coating. He achieves this with pitch or also with linseed oil and he takes care to cover the box of the lock with one or the other. If he covers it with pitch, then he heats the iron red hot, allowing the pitch to become fluid on the iron and moves the sheet in such a manner that the pitch is spread out over all sides. Still it is much more common to coat the iron with linseed oil. Before the coating is applied the iron will either not be made hot or be heated only moderately. As soon as the linseed oil is carried off though, then he lays it on the coal and {Page 52}allows the bellows to be pumped slowly. The locksmith must take the iron again from the fire though at precisely the moment that it becomes black, otherwise it does not receive a pleasing black color. Sometimes the locksmith covers the box of the lock with brass plate particularly if it is noticeable in the chamber. They rivet the thin plates merely with rivets of brass wire onto the iron plates. The brim [Figure XLVI de] will be forged to a thin rod, thoroughly polished with the files, and is rivetted onto the brim plate [ac].C. The actual lock deserves first to be remarked upon. The head of the bolt [Figure XLVIII gh] arises from an added piece like the bit of the key, and the shank [fg] will be forged corresponding to the thickness of half of the bit of the key. The file must smooth both parts. The slot [ik], one cuts out with the cold chisel and the rivet [y] on which the shank turns receives a small screw and nut on top with the screw plate so that the bolt can be taken off. The locksmith now fastens those pegs of the bolt onto the lock plate, in order to test the action with the key. Through a simple process, he can find the arrangement without much skill. He gives the bolt a locked position, sticks the key in the key hole, turns it to the right {Page 53} against the bolt and marks where the bit of the key touchs the bolt with a pencil. In this manner, he finds the point [Figure XLVIII l]. He slides the bolt all the way back and turns the key around to the left. Where the edge of the bit pushs on the bolt, that is the point [r]. Following these points he can cut out the action ANGRIFFE with a file or also with a cross chisel [Figure XII] when he has divided the line [lr] beforehand into two equal parts. The bit of the key is moved in a circle and therefore the side surfaces of the action must be inclined. As soon as the action is made, so the locksmith is allowed to move only the bolt with the key, where the catchs [Figure XLVIII q] of the tumbler lies on the bolt, and he has turned the key but once, he thus finds both the slots [n] and [o]. They were cut with the frame saw [Figure XXI], but first, when the entire lock is finished. The action and stretcher slots presently coincide with each other completely. Failing that, it causes trouble for the locksmith. The brass spring under the bolt that is covered by the bolt in the illustration will be held by the the peg [Figure XLVIII y] and is not any more intricate. In forging the tumbler [Figures XLVI, XLVIII pqrs], the locksmith leaves a piece of iron for the spring and draws it out under the hammer into a thin spring that is as broad as the bolt is thick.{Page 54}Normally one believes that all springs are forged of steel but in the French lock they are made merely of hardened iron. The locksmith allows the iron spring to become red hot after the forging and forges it cold with a wet hammer. This gives the iron a hardness of steel. Finally the forged flaps LAPPEN [qrs] of the tumbler are bent around in the vice at [a] right angle [q] as are also the catchs [q] and after this the whole is polished with the file. The locksmith manufactures the square rod [p] with the file and gives it tenons at both ends so that it, like all other rods of this type, can at last be rivetted into the lock plate. He clamps the rod in the vice and winds the end of the spring around the rod. The spring will be wrapped around the rod cold, and the locksmith holds it with the hand vice [Figure XVI] in doing this. The length of the bolt must establish the position of the rod, as can be easily observed. Most of the time the manufacture of the mechanism [Figure XLVI tuvw] is required. The mid breach sheet MITTELBRUCHBLECH [tu] is easily cut from sheet iron but it requires still more effort to fasten both of the small columns [t, u]. The file gives them tenons at both ends, because they likewise will be rivetted into the lock plate, [Figure XLVII t, u]. One makes a further slot with a file in the middle of both these columns on which the mid breach will rest and between both slots{Page 55}a narrow piece of iron or a tenon will be left. According to the size of the latter, a notch or mortise will be chiseled out of the narrow side of the mid breach sheet at [t] and [u] and now the small columns will be joined to the mid breach by the tenons of the former and the mortises of the latter. Still more skill and effort must be expended on the wards. If they merely consist of the two small bent sheets above and below the mid breach, they rise perpendicularly over this sheet just a few twelfths of an inch, thus the locksmith sticks the key into the lock, once he has already fastened the mid breach with its small columns, turns the key around on the sheet and holds a pencil against the slots in the bit of the key at [Figure XLIX h]. In doing this, the key turns causing the pencil to describe a half circle [vw] at the same time, according to which the wards of the lock must be soldered on if they are to fall into the slots of the key. The locksmith forges a narrow sheet for this that is as long as the half circle and as broad as both wards of the key [Figure XLIX h and i], because the wards of the lock above and below the mid breach should arise from this narrow piece. He divides the narrow piece of the wards in two further pieces following its length, drawing a line on the middle of the sheet along its length, and cutting both halves next to each other along this line with the star wedge [Figure XXXVI]{Page 56}because on both ends of the sheet there only a narrow part of the line that is not cut by the star wedge remains. Following the length of the uncut part of the line, he makes a slot on the mid breach with the file at [Figure LXVI v and w] underneath, bends the wards sheet into a curved shape, and slides it onto the mid breach so that this falls into the slots that the locksmith has made with the star wedge on the wards and the uncut part of the wards fits into the slot [v] and [w] of the mid breach. Finally, both halves of the wards above and below the circle defined by the mid breach must be soldered on. This small band is subjected to the force of the key when the former is turned in the same and therefore it must be soldered on with copper. One places small pieces of copper against the joints, dampens them with saliva, sprinkles them with powdered glass and places the mid breach with the wards in the fire. Soldering occurs when the melted copper flows and the iron will then be cooled in water. In soldering with brass the locksmith proceeds in the same manner and the sign that the uniting has taken place is that the brass gives off a blue flame. Should the wards consist of two parallel bands, then one proceeds with the second just as with the first. There
Harold // 5:03 AM
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{Page 57}are still other intricate types of wards. Among these, only those shall be remarked upon that fit the illustrated key [Figure XLIX h and i]. The eye will easily percieve from the key, that each half of the wards must have a right angled catch above if it isn't to hinder the key in turning. The locksmith forges a square rod from steel that is as thick, as a rule, as the height of half the ward [h] or [i] and wraps sheet iron around the steel. He throws both in the fire, bends it hot into half a circle [vw] on the mid breach, heats both for a second time, and thrusts it into cold water. The steel is brittle from this and breaks apart if one hits the sheet with a hammer, so that one can take it from the wrapped together sheet with a rod. Who doesn't see that now, from the wrapped and square broken sheet, a ward with a catch can be cut? All that remains concerning this process is the same as the former wards. Only the locksmith rarely goes to the trouble to manufacture this ingenious ward. It looks like the key's wards and it could not matter to the purchaser who examines the lock, whether it also has a ward that corresponds exactly to the key. This test is extraordinarily easy. One need only to fill up the wards of the key with wax, and turn the key in lock. {Page 58}All the slots of the bit that are not cleaned of the wax again by this are not found on the wards of the lock. It can sometimes occur that the master has been decieved by his journeyman or that soldered wards have broken away.D. The bolt [Figure XLVI ABC] of the springing latch will be forged like the bolt of the lock. Generally, one cuts it away obliquely at [A] so that it is the easier to fasten into the lock plate. The STUDEL [CE], the locksmith forges on the beak iron, because he must give it two feet similar to a small clamp. On both ends of the feet he files tenons in order to rivet it onto the lock plate. The spring [EG] will be forged as the former and at [G] it will be wound a few times around a square peg in the vice. Consequently, there is still the nut H to consider. It consists of the two tubes of sheet metal that are inserted into each other and are soldered together. The inner tube projects out of the outer tube on both ends, and the projecting parts form two tenons which moves the nut in the lock plate and in the cover [Figures XLVI and XLVII H]. The outer tube, the locksmith bends round on a small stake or mandrel in such a manner that the tail of one end remains and following this he rounds it completely in a key swage [Figure XVIII] on a mandrel, as he also does with the inner tube.{Page 59}The inner tube is given a square hole, into which the tang of the handle or grip is stuck or fastened, on a square mandrel. The iron handle and grip are formed in a swage; the brass ones are cast by a brass worker. The locksmith sends him the iron tang and this, they position in the flasks during the pouring and unite the brass and the iron in the casting. The tang rests in the handle, that one sees in the chamber so the outer handle has a hole on its axis into which the tang fits. When the lock is closed then the locksmith rivets the point of the tang on the outer handle.D. The manufacture of the thumb bolt (literally "night bolt") has been fully explained in the text above. At [N] the cold chisel will strike a hole in the bolt into which the tail of the nut [M] pushs the bolt and under the bolt the locksmith rivets a brass spring onto the lock plate.E. Finally the locksmith cuts the lock or band plate for the door post out of iron sheet and cuts holes in the iron for the three bolts.b) To the metalwork of a door belong the door hinges. Most decorative are all those that the locksmith calls English flaps or "Fish bands". The reader can easily distinguish them from the others {Page 60}when one says simply that one will notice their hinges in the chamber. Such a fish band is fastened together from two flaps of wrought iron sheet that appear to be joined by a hinge. The half which is fastened to the door is perpendicularly bent at [Figure LVIII b, ab] will be inserted outside the door and [bc] is as broad as the door is thick. One inserts the flap [bd] into the door frame. The locksmith draws an iron bar out into a strong iron sheet and out of this both flaps will be made. The flap [ab] will be bent to a right angle in the vice. From both halves, the locksmith measures off the part from which the hinge [cb] will result, bends both the measured parts on a thick mandrel at [cb], joins the halves, and rounds and smooths the hinge in a key swage [Figure XVIII]. The band chisel [Figure XXXVII] must completely smooth the joint that cannot be brought into the swage and the hinge will be soldered on the flaps with copper. In the half of the hinge of the lower flap that is turned against the floor board on fastening, the locksmith merely solders on a tenon of the knob [b] which he evens in a swage if it is made from iron. However, it is usual for one to use a brass knob. The pin [cb] will be inserted into the hinge at [c] but not soldered in order that one can pull the pin out if the door needs to be unhinged. The pin also has{Page 61}a swaged iron or a brass knob at [c]. The latter too will be joined to the pin during casting. For decoration, the locksmith covers the hinge [cb] with sheet brass because it will be seen in the chamber. They simply rivet the sheet onto the hinge without first rounding it to the hinge. After the riveting, they strike it with the peen of a hammer or the juncture of the hinge and in this way the sheet will be at once smoothed onto the iron so that it has the appearence that the fish bands are of brass.The locksmith lays the last hand on the metalwork of the door when he hinges it. All the tenons on the perpendicular iron of the lock are riveted into the lockplate beforehand and cover and the nut of the thumb bolt and the springing latch are fastened into their openings. This holds all the inner pieces together. The lock described can be locked from both sides and therefore the locksmith must let it into the door completely. He chisels out exactly as much as its thickness in the middle of the door so that the lock can be pushed entirely in and he makes a slot in front of the hollow on the edge of the door for the brim [Figure XLVI de]. Most of the time, the lock will open in the middle of the door and only on very tall doors must it be inlet somewhat beneath the middle. The brim will be fastened merely with a few wood screws. Such a screw{Page 62}can either be forged like a nail, the head worked out with a file and the screw cut with the screw cutting die [Figure XX] or one can make the entire screw in a swage. The locksmith saws the slot on the head for the screw driver with a frame saw [Figure XXI]. In both cases, for decoration, one blues the head. All pieces to which the ironworker gives this coating must be well filed and polished beforehand since the finer the iron is polished, the better it is blued. Most locksmiths polish only with the smooth file and the burnisher, a few rub the iron afterward with rouge. After the polishing, the locksmith holds the head over the glowing coals where it first colors yellow and then blues. At this moment, he must remove it from the fire when it becomes blue because otherwise the blue changes to a whitish color. For just this reason, the locksmith sticks the blued iron into the sand at once so that it cools off. The lock plate on the door frame will simply be fastened with nails, and the holes for the bolt will be chiseled out of the wood. The locksmith can find the spot if he closes the lock and the bolt makes an imprint in the wood. One easily sees, that the key hole must be chiseled out as well. Finally the locksmith affixes the brass shield{Page 63}that he forms with the cold chisel with small brass rivets and fastens the handle in the manner described above. The fish bands will be inlet into the wood and fastened with wood screws. This has already been illuminated in the foregoing text. B. The metal work of a cabinet differs from the metal work of a door only in that it is smaller. Only the mechanism and the use of a trunk requires a completely different metal work. He overlays it with strong bands and the locksmith usually gives it a German lock. Here then is the best place to set forth the parts ofa) a German lock, especially since the locks of the trunks are the strongest of their type.A. In the manufacturing, the locksmith once more begins with the key. As with the French key, its parts are the bow [Figure LII ab], the shank [bf] and the bit [fg]. The shank [bf] will usually be rolled together from thick sheet iron. Only for a masterpiece does one forge it solid, and bore out the key hole. The locksmith forges the sheet iron for the shank around a round mandrel with the hammer and smooths and evens it in the key swage [Figure XVIII]. The knob [e] will also be forged round on a mandrel from a small piece of iron,{Page 64}worked with the file, and placed onto the shank. The locksmith bends the bow [ab] after forging it around a beak iron [Figure IX] and allows a tenon to remain beneath [b] on both ends of the wrought iron that will extend into the shank and he beats these tenons back a little bit, so that a small knob resembling a point results at [b] which he welds together with the tenons in such a manner that the latter fits precisely into the shank. Then he makes a slot with the file beneath [c] and [d] in the shank and the knob that is as broad as the bow is thick and places the bow in the shank so that they fall into the filed slots. If he strikes with a hammer in setting the bow at [a], then he would distort its round form, and therefore he sets the bow jig [Figure XXXII] on the knob [b Figure LII] and directs the hammer not onto the bow but rather on the bow jig. After assembling all the parts, the locksmith moves to soldering them together. The two ends of the shank are beaten over each other and the locksmith lays narrow pieces of copper sheet on the joint along the length of the shank, makes them wet with saliva, sprinkles them with powdered glass, wraps the shank with wire, and lays it on the coals. The knob and bow will be soldered merely with brass since they are not exposed to as much force as the shank. The bit will be forged from a small piece of iron {Page 65}and upset on an anvil while heated, by which means the rings on the bit arise. After this, one adjusts it on the shank with the file, fastens it with wire, and solders it on with copper. The file must finally finish out the whole key. The slots and the wards, one also makes with the cross chisel [Figure XII] and with the frame saw [Figure XXI]. To the bit of the German key, as for the lock, the locksmith can give quite a manifold ward just as for the French lock, because it is only locked from one side. In the bit of the key [Figure LII fg], one will note the wards similar in form to a cross.B. The origin of the lock itself will be comprensible from [Figure L]. The lock plate [ab] is held together with a top [ae] which in the plan of the lock will be let into the rabbet of the trunk. Normally the circumference of the lockplate will be cut out artfully. The sheet itself is punched and of this, the most important of the bands should be addressed. The holes of the lock plate for the nails are bored by the locksmith with a drift [Figure XXXIII]. In the middle of the top [ae], a hole [cd] will be cut out with the cold chisel for the lock hook. Under this top a strong pin or swivel{Page 66}is fastened on the middle of the lock plate and is rivetted with a peg. In just this manner both the strong swivels [gh] will also be united with lock plate a little below the first. Around each of the last two swivels, the end of a strong iron [gi, hk] is wound that the locksmith calls the latch. Therefore the locksmith must forge the latch a bit thinner at [g] and [h] so that he can wind them around the swivel as in the French lock. At [i] and [k], he gives them strong catchs in a vice with which they can grip the lock hook [vwx]. Between both latchs the swivel [f] holds one or two actions ANGRIFFE with which the bit of the key pulls back the latchs on the unlocking. If the lock has only one action, then the end [m] bends the latch [ig] but a flap at [f] draws the latch [kh] back. Locks of this type can be unlocked with any pick lock, however, and therefore the locksmith prefers to give the lock two actions over each other. The uppermost reaches from [m] to the key hole at [n] and lies completely over the undermost. These have a thin section from [n] to [m] on which the upper action rests and the slot at [m] is cut away obliquely so that it can move the action [mn]. The flaps at [n] of the action [lm] extend a bit further against [h] than the flaps [n] of the upper action. Between both actions, a small ring of sheet metal lies on the swivel [f], so that they are allowed to move on each other more easily. When the bit of the key{Page 67}moves the flaps of the upper action, then its protuberance at [f] thrusts the latch [kh] back. The flaps at [n] of the lower action [ln] stand a little toward [h] and will thus be touched later by the bit of the key than the former. Its tip [l] moves the latch [lg]. The pick lock also seize one or the other of the actions so the lock hook [vwx] holds yet another latch. The locksmith must provide also for that so that the locked latch will be pulled back again and this is affected by a spring [oqp]. It will be forged of the best steel, bent on the edge of the anvil into a circle with the hammer, and hardened as explained on page 54. At [q], it is about a quarter inch thick but at [o] and [p] it is forged a bit thinner by the locksmith and is bent around at [o] and [p] so that it can rest against the latch all the better. At [q], one makes a hole with either a pointed hammer or a mandrel in order to fasten the spring to the lock plate with a rivet. With that, the latch will not fall back when it is moved by the key so a piece of sheet metal lies on the tenon of the swivel [f] over the latch and actions and on this, the swivel [f] will finally be rivetted. The locksmith calls this, the stowing VERSATZ. In the illustration, it would have made the latchs and actions indistinct and therefore one has shown it separately in cross section [Figure LIII] and bodily in [Figure LVI]. Over the key hole [t] the socket rests and extends up to{Page 68}the flaps of the actions. [Figure L]. In [Figure LI] it is presented separately. It must project from the lockplate as far as the length of the bit of the key. Therefore they have two feet with tenons at [r] and [s] by which they will be held on the lock plate at [Figure L r and s]. The socket as well as the feet must be forged from solid iron, because the purpose of this part is to fasten and rivet on the pin [Figure LI u] that sticks in the hole of the shank of the key. The feet will be bent around in the vice and will hold the mid breach sheet on which the wards of the lock have been opened. One cannot place this sheet in the illustration though. It would be superfluous to talk of this part of the lock again because one has explained it already extensively enough in the course of the discussion of the French lock. One can form the best conception of the form of the lock latch [Figure L vwx] from the illustration. The part [vw] is fastened to the shield with rivets that he fixes onto the cover of the trunk.b) Besides the lock, the trunk also has at least two bands with hasps and six corner pieces. Completed bands pass over the whole rear side of the box and the lid, and on the forward side still other front bands are fixed exactly beneath them. Their borders tend to be skillfully elaborated{Page 69}and the bands of this type, one sees in the following description. Each band, as is well known, is joined together with a hinge from two pieces. The locksmith doesn't cut them out of iron sheet at all, but they are forged out of solid iron instead. He leaves a thick piece of iron projecting out of these pieces during the forging for the decoration that he calls flaps and he draws these out with the peen of the hammer into the rough designs that the flap will be given; for example, a half circle or a point. As soon as all the flaps of the decoration are found on both sides then he moves on to the manufacture of the hinge. It is understood that the end of one half of the band has two small sheet metal cylinders between which there is a space into which the cylinder of sheet metal in the middle of the other half of the band can be slid precisely in order to link all three cylinders with a pin. The shank of the hinge will not be bent exactly onto the end of each half of the band, but instead at a distance from the end or, to put it plainly, in front of the hinge, a narrow end of the sheet metal remains. Not far from the end of the sheet metal, the locksmith measures off an amount equal to the thickness of the pin that carries the hinge, separates this end into three equal parts, and wraps it around the pin that finally links both halves of the band. In this way, he makes three small but equal sized tubes. It should first{Page 70}consist of two tubes or cylinders on one half of the band. Of the three tubes, the middle one will be beaten flat and completely cut out with a chisel. In just this way, three small tubes of the same size arise on the other half of the band of which the small tubes on the ends, however, are beaten down and cut out. Thus only the middle one remains and this is yet set up by the file only, so that it rests comfortably between the two tubes of the other half of the band. One will easily understand from the description, that the outermost band of each band comes to lie on the iron in front of the hinge during its manufacture, and here it will be welded on. Finally the pin unites both halves of the band and the locksmith rivets it at both ends. Now the border of the flaps, that were drawn out in the rough beforehand will be shaped up with chisels of all types. The half round chisel must do most of the work though. The measure of the eye and practice guide the hand of the master in this and a description of it would not be able to give a complete understanding. All of this happens cold, and the iron lies on a beak iron for this work. Just as little can be described about the chasing of the bands. Namely, it is understood that they have raised areas here and there. The locksmith traces out the design following a pattern{Page 71}or free hand, lays the sheet on a lead plate, and drives out the raised design with the blunt end of the punch chisel [Figure XXVII]. The blunt end of this tool must register in exact proportion with the figure of the raised area that one wants to emboss. The punch chisel is driven by the hammer. It does not need to be described again for the forward bands since they are forged, cut out, and embossed like the half band. Occasionally an escutcheon will be affixed in addition each side of the lock, and for this the locksmith already has the pattern made of sheet metal on hand. This, he places on the sheet iron and draws the outline following the pattern and the pierced holes. All of the holes and the perimeter itself are cut out with the flat and half round chisels. The six corner pieces will be cut from sheet metal and their perimeter will be elaborated with the cold chisel following a pattern or free hand. They will be bent at a right angle in the middle and the edges will be half cut through with a chisel in order that,in affixing, one can put on two sections of the corner piece on the lid of the trunk. The holes for the nails in the bands and the corner pieces, the locksmith drills with a punch. The handle will be forged square first; then, after this, into a round measured rod that is somewhat thicker in the middle than at its ends. {Page 72}The locksmith gives it its familiar bent form, free hand on the edge of the anvil with a hammer and with this same tool he also puts on the tenons on both ends. Exactly in the middle, he winds on a narrow piece of iron around the handle, brings it to white heat, and forms a decorative knob from the sheet in a swage. The block that holds fast the tenons of the handle on the trunk, one bends on the stake from a small iron rod so that a tenon results on both of its ends that are driven into the trunk after which they are cut off from each other and will be rivetted. The locksmith makes the knob or grip on the escutcheon of the lid in a swage and gives it a wood screw. Normally the locksmith gives all these pieces a black coating with linseed oil (Page 51). If the owner wants, they can also cover the iron with brass sheet. The thin brass sheet will then be cut following the outline of the iron and rivetted to the same. The local locksmiths do not go in for turning themselves but rather they give the metalwork over to the spur maker who already has all the important things for this in stock if it is necessary. Of all the metal work, there is only this to further mention, that is the lock is let into the wood{Page 73}and therefore one bends the bands cold following the form of the trunk. Therefore, they must be made following a measurement. Note: The locksmith makes the metal mountings for a coffin out of tinned sheet iron following a pattern. The thin sheet will be rolled onto a lead for embossing and therefore the locksmith nails it at a few points onto a block of soft wood such as pine and embosses it with the punch chisels. The wood must give during this and therefore must be soft. C. Pad locks are so well known and useful that it is worth the trouble to become familiar with their inner construction. The French pad locks do not differ in the least from the type above and therefore it is only important to describe the German pad lock. From [Figure XLVI and XLVII], the reader will learn at once what type of lock this text concerns. They represent the most common and simplest pad lock. It is understood that the internal components are surrounded by an iron case [Figure LVI cfe] and that on the same a hook [rt] is rivetted from which the lock is hung. The case consists of four main pieces; both the front sheets [bcd] and both side plates [cefd] that will be cut with the cold chisel from thick sheets of iron. From these same sheets, the bridge STEG [Figure LVII g] is made and fastened with a tenon on the end of both {Page 74}front sheets. On each side of the bridge, one makes a slot with the frame saw in order to fasten the mid breach plate [hikl] on the bridge in just the manner as with the mid breach in a French lock on both columns (see page 54). The mid breach has the form of the pad lock entirely and lies exactly in the middle between both these sheets. In [kl] it has a round cut out, so that the bit of the key has space to turn around in the lock. On each side of the case lies a narrow sheet which one calls the covering [Figure LVI adm]. In the illustration one can only see one; but each side sheet and forward sheet has one such covering for the sake of stability. Each covering is pasted with a cement of resin and pitch onto its front or side sheet so that the key hole [a] at its place can be cut out, the pin [z] for the key is riveted into the rear forward facing plate and the bridge [Figure LVII g] is set in with the mid breach [hikl] between the fore sheets with their pegs. All four pieces of the case will be pasted together with cement. The border [Figure XLVI op] of four narrow sheets is joined together by the same material by the locksmith and set into the case. On the sheets [op], on the long side of the border he pastes on internally a sheet of just its length. Each of these pasted sheets has two cheeks [q] and [r]{Page 75}which are borne by the hooks [rt] at [r] and both the others [q] that will hold the bolt fast. On one of the sides of the lock where the locksmith wants to put in the spring, he pastes on a sheet [s] which fills out the space between both sheets on the cheeks. He calls this the small bridge. If all these pieces are pasted together, then one lays brass and powdered glass on all the joints and covers the entire lock with loam and horse manure. Of the latter, a little bit more must be used than the former. The lock will be laid in the fire for soldering and in this the blue flame of the brass is the signal that it must be taken out of the heat. After the manufacture of the case, the locksmith moves first to the inner parts of the lock. He gives the most secure locks of this type two bolts [Figure LVII tsu] from which the first lies on one side of the mid breach sheet [hikl] and the second, on the other side of this sheet. In the illustration one can only see one bolt because the other lies on the other side of the mid breach in just such a manner that it is hidden by the first and the mid breach in the illustration. A lock that has only one bolt can be unlocked by any nail, only with two bolts the nail grips only one bolt and the other still holds the hook [ts]. The iron bolt will be bent to the right angle in the vice after forging and one either bends it at [k]{Page 76}a little bit or it receives a catch. In both cases it holds the key so that it cannot be turned around in the lock further than [u]. The locksmith forges the spring [svw] from the best steel and bends it at a sharp angle. The shank [vw] is about the breadth of the small bridge [s], smaller than the shank [vs] as a glance will tell. The bolt and spring will simply be set in the lock without a fastening and indeed a bolt with its spring on each side of the middle breach. The point on the spring, the locksmith sets under the small bridge [s] and the arm of the bolt [rs] he places under the bridge [g]. The spring as well as the bolt must be precisely as broad as the space between the mid breach and the fore plate of the case so that they will be held fast on both sides. Above, the covering iron confines them, a narrow sheet that extends from the cheek [q] to the other [r] and is soldered onto the sheets of the cheeks. Therefore this sheet must be a little below the point where the border [op] lies. The hooks [rt] will normally be forged and bent in a curve on the anvil. The slot in [t], it receives from a file while in the vice, and the hole in [r] from a bit in order to rivet on the cheeks [r]. The key will be manufactured as are all other German keys (see page 63) and one gives its bit just one slot that fits into the mid breach sheet. If one{Page 77}turns it in the lock, then each half of the bit grips the arm of the lock [ks] and pushs it back. If one lets go of the key though then the spring [WVS] drives the bolt back again, and the point of the latter falls into the slot of the hook [t]. All of this will be smoothed finally with the file.Note: There is a special type of locksmith that merely makes pad locks and is called a "soldered" locksmith. In Schmalkalden, one finds them in great numbers, from whose ranks a few have settled at the knife factory at Neustadt-Eberswalde. They manufacture the padlocks for a cheap price and therefore they seldom give up this work for the other locks. The soldered locksmiths put their work together in the manner described here and therefore it is not of further importance to dedicate a separate special section to them. D. The most substantial work of the locksmiths in construction are the railing and strut frames of the windows, on the balconies and stairs between the casemates of the palaces, in front of gardens of the palaces and in the cathedrals. With these works of art, the locksmith must summon up his total ability and therefore it deserves to close out this section.a) Ther simplest pieces of this type are those that consist merely of horizontal bars and vertical rods, and these are called plain railing by the locksmith. [Figure LV] represents a strut frame only the rods are decorated {Page 78}and are fully similar to a railing and therefore the illustration can also serve as a guide for the railings. The uppermost bar [ab] is called by the locksmith a flat bar; the bar [cd], the foundation; and the vertical rod [ef], a support. In the illustration one notices indeed only the supports only it is also a panel of a strut frame and a [bd] would again be another support as for each panel further. The supports will be discussed first. They are, as all other bars are, forged either square or round, yet they have over the other bars that one gives them a decorative knob. The locksmith therefore leaves projecting pieces here and there during the forging of these bars, as the blacksmith does for the bars of a coach (Volume 5, page 243) and from these the knob will be swaged. Knobs of this type have a superior raised design though and one would not well be able to leave so deep a recess as are required with such knobs. Therefore the locksmith gives the deep recesses a slot in the middle, wraps an iron ring around the same, brings the recess and ring to a white heat and places the knob [m] into the swage. The flat bar [ab] and foundation [cd] will be forged flat or rounded in a swage. In this, there is only to be mentioned that the foundation often is omitted chiefly when one gives the railing a traversing bar in the middle that runs parallel to the flat bar.{Page 79}The most important part of making railing is the joining together of its parts. The locksmith accomplishs this, as the carpenter does with mortises and tenons. The supports receive tenons on both ends and both the horizontal bars; mortises. The tenon, the local locksmith forms with merely one attachment on the edge of the anvil. The part of the support from which the tenon should result lies on the anvil; the hammer draws it thinner and with the edge of the anvil a slot results over the tenon of the bar. For the mortise, the master must measure off suitable holes first so that the supports come to stand vertically when the railing as with the staircase will be brought to an inclined surface. Therefore should the railing be a balustrade of a large staircase in a building, so the building master must send over a model or pattern of wood to the locksmith that resembles the design of the staircase and according to which the locksmith adjusts all the parts of the railing. With stairs before a door, and other small pieces the locksmith bends a model for himself from thin bars of iron. The holes themselves the artisan strikes first with the blunt end of the corer [Figure XXXIV] and bores them on a hole ring [Figure XXII] completely through with a round or square punch according to the character of the tenon. Should this bar receive a bend{Page 80}then this occurs on the anvil free hand with just a hammer. For fastening the traversing bars, the locksmith strikes a flat hole through both the supports [ef, bd]; draws a piece of iron [gi] according to the size of the hole and rivets the bar at [g] and [i]. One easily notices that in each panel a separate traversing rod is rivetted and that all run in the same line thus the narrow piece of iron on a support project from both sides at [h] and [g] in order to fasten the bar of another panel at [g]. The horizontal bars and the supports are able to be joined by means of the tenons and mortises. The tenon [e] will either be rivetted merely to the flat bar or it will receive a brass head. In the latter case, there is a tang on the tenon of the support besides and through the center of the brass knob runs is a hole onto which to stick the tang and rivet from above. This goes for all knobs as well as for those that are stuck onto the ends of the top rail. The form of the lower tenon at [f] depends on the material of the stairway onto which the railing will be fastened. If they consist of masonry then one gives the tenons holes and catches (hooks) because cast in lead into the ashlar. With wooden stairs a flap [kl] will be rivetted under the tenon which (flap) will receive holes on both ends in order to fasten the supports with a wood screw or a nail.{Page 81}Sometimes the locksmith rivets scrolls onto the supports here and there that are wound up on the spring fork [Figure XXXIX ab] (see page 36). b) Quite a bit more skill is required by those railings whose panels the locksmith fills out with decorations. Their name differs due to this and one calls these strut frames SPRENGWERKE. Its surrounding is a railing but one often gives the horizontal bars moldings in a swage. 1) The simplest type of strut frames are those that are assembled from more thin and flat bars in such a manner that these taken together form different figures. The locksmith makes a drawing of one panel of the railing on boards, and on the pattern of this drawing he lays the flat bars in order to test whether he has given them a suitable bending under the hammer. They receive the bending itself either on the edge of the anvil or, if it is a scroll; with a spring fork [Figure XXXIX ab]. Finally all bars are normally joined with a band. This consists of two parts; of a clamp and a straight sheet. The feet of the clamp, one gives rivets and on the ends of the straight piece holes will be struck in order to hereby join both pieces and form a complete square. Both pieces will be decorated with the architecture of the bars beforehand, however.{Page 83}Strut frames SPRENGWERKE of this type are not common at present in Berlin and therefore one has not dwelled upon them. 2) The most ingenious strut frames are unquestionably those whose panels are filled in with a continuous foliage of wrought iron. These are also those that one has sought to make understandable in the [Figure LV]. It would be very difficult for the locksmith to forge the entire foliage out of one piece and therefore he puts it together out of many pieces; namely, out of the pieces [abc], [bcd], [ik], [il], [mn], [opq]. He forges each piece allowing a thick piece of iron to stand for the flaps and draws out the pieces roughly with the peen of his hammer. He must have a drawing of the strut frame in view during the entire working however that he either sketchs himself or receives from master builder. The perimeter of all the flaps, he cuts as well as the holes in the parts with the half moon chisel [Figure XXVI] which he drives with a hammer. The iron lies on the beak iron for this work. On the broad surfaces of the iron he cuts engraved figures here and there with a chisel and in all these works a drawing must guide him. Once he has suitably formed all the parts then he joins them by welding. The main arm is [abcd] with which the remaining parts will be attached. It consists itself of two parts; [abc] and [cd],{Page 83}that are welded together at [i]. The arm [cd], he cuts at [c] from each other and through this the bough [ch] results. After the cutting he forms both parts with the half moon chisels of all types. After this the parts [abc], [cd], [ik], [il], [mn] will be welded together at [i], and [mn] will be fastened to the main arm at [n] with a rivet so that it will not break, because it is only a weak foliage. To hide the joint however, a sheet [ocp] will be riveted on the arm [ab] which at [bi] covers all joints, that result from the soldering together. The sheet will be embossed by the punch chisel [Figure XXVIII] and elaborated by the half round chisels. Instead of this part, however, one can draw the perimeter of the arm [ab] into a thin sheet with the set chisel and emboss with a sheet. The bough [ef] is soldered on the arm [ab] like all small, suspended parts and all strong projecting points like [fg] will be rivetted to the main arm. There are only two things still to be mentioned. First of all, all the parts of this strut frame will be bent not with the spring fork but simply with the hammer on the edge of the anvil instead. Secondly, it must be shown how the foliage is fastened into the panels. The locksmith makes a shallow hole in the flat bars and supports at the places where the shoots of the foliage touch the bars as at [q,r,s,t], rivets tenons into the shallow holes{Page 84}such as the tenon [gh] and fastens the foliage on these with rivets. In just this manner, he fills out all the remaining panels of the strut frame. V. The locksmith has a profession related to that of the jack maker, bit maker, gunsmith, and clock maker. In order to simply differentiate their journeymen from the artisans mentioned in their meeting house (guild hall), they establish the name of visiting journeyman and they require a journeyman or to read in their language if they are visiting. The name of a visiting journeyman is therefore applied because a locksmith must be able to manufacture all works of the other artisans in spite of them being foreign to them. An apprentice who is in this profession learns in only three years when they submit an apprenticeship fee. The rest study for five years, however. A journeyman who would be a master must already have travelled three years. In spite of this he will receive no maintenance on his journey. In Berlin the locksmith makes a French lock for a door, and a pad lock for a masterpiece. The latter must be able to be locked from both sides and have on one side a round hole and, on the other, a heart-shaped key hole. Instead of the punishment the rising master makes a voluntary gift to the rest.
Harold // 5:02 AM
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TRADES AND ARTS The ToolsmithCopyright: Harold B. Gill, III: 1991P.N. Sprengel's Handwerke und KuensteVolume 6 Section 5{Page 142}The ToolsmithI. Contents. A toolsmith must possess the skill to manufacture nearly all iron and steel instruments of the other artisans, particularly those of the wood workers. In addition, he works solid iron and sheet iron into a variety kitchen implements as well. Those that are already familiar with the materials with which the blacksmith and locksmith overcome the hardness of the iron according to the use and form of each product and who know how to form this metal, will guess how each product of the toolsmith is forged, assembled, and finished by the hand of this artisan beforehand.II. The purpose of tools makes it necessary that one give them exceptional durability. Therefore they can be forged by the toolsmith from the Swedish iron only. This fact does not apply to the kitchen utensils, however, and therefore they will be made merely from native iron. Various other kitchen utensils will also be put together from sheet iron. The toolsmith receives{Page 143}this sheet from Sulzhausen in thin tablets, that are one foot in diameter and cost two Groschen eight Pfennig per tablet. For steeling the tools, he uses Cologne steel and Steiermark steel also. He can only employ the latter for certain pieces, because it confers no particular durability, since not all places of the steel take on a similar hardness.III. Except for a few pieces, one sees the tools of the locksmith in the workshop of the toolsmith as well. It would be superfluous to speak once more of the forge, the anvil, the different types of hammers, tongs and files, vices and the like, and therefore only the few tools that are not familiar yet from the former sections shall be noted.A. The saw set is approximately one foot long and a half inch broad and on each side has a blunt edge on which notchs of varying breadth are cut out about a quarter inch deep. The rest will be made comprehensible from the appearence of [Figure I] on Plate IV. The teeth of a saw will be bent outwards with this instrument. B. In the making of bits, the toolsmith forges out the cutting edges in a bending jig [Figure II] resembling a halved hollow cylinder. The tang of this tool is placed in an anvil stump and both its iron arms are set at{Page 144}an angle to each other. Each corner on the surfaces [ab] and [cd] is rounded off. C. The spiral worm bits receive their twist on the right angled jig [Figure III]. It is a square piece of iron that projects from the stump approximately one inch and whose head or protuberance has the form of a half cylinder. The largest of these bits require a special right angled jig and therefore several different instruments of this type stand together on a block.D. The countersink [Figure IV] has a head [ab] at the end; resembling a shortened cone and on its side surfaces are spiral cutting edges or notchs. In the rear most part [c] of this instrument is a square hollowed out hole, because during use one places the countersink onto a square peg on the end of the capstan of a grind stone and this instrument turns around along with the grind stone. It will be with this tool that the inner surfaces of a round hollowed out iron will be reamed out; for example, the hollow of the chuck of a turner's lathe.E. The chafing dish stake is entirely similar to a small anvil of the coppersmith [Figure V] and the toolsmith also bends sheet round on this tool for the chafing dish, for example.F. With the drift punchs [Figure VI], steeled round irons with a flat point, the toolsmith cuts out holes of different sizes on the sheet. {Page 145}Therefore one finds punchs of all sizes in great number in his shop. IV. The products of these craftsmen can be divided into the tools for other artisans and the kitchen utensils. A few examples of both types will make the skill of the toolsmiths sufficiently clear. A. If all the tools that the toolsmith makes are to be described, the origin of bits, saws, hammers, punchs, chisels, and all pieces that an artisan could desire must be laid out. Out of this great number one will choose only the most necessary products for examples.The saws will be divided into the hand saws and large saws that are pulled by two people. The toolsmith forges the hand saws out of either old sabers or dagger blades because these at least still contain a bit of steel, or, in the absence of these, from good Swedish steel. In both cases, he draws the metal out under the hammer into a thin blade and gives this a tang on each end. In doing this, he has only to watch so that he heats the metal thoroughly to welding heat and therefore it must be reheated fairly often so that it constantly maintains the necessary degree of heat. (Volume 5, page 223) After the forging, the blade{Page 146}will be made red hot, hammered with a wet hammer until it cools and, in this fashion, hardened to a certain extent. So that the blade will be straight and the teeth can be filed out the same size, one cuts the iron with strong sheet shears on both the long sides. Both the large side surfaces will be polished with a sandstone free hand and smoothed. Meanwhile one planes them also thoroughly with a strong plane. The toolsmith now proceeds to the most important thing; namely, to the filing out or setting of the teeth. The vice holds the saw tightly during this operation, and a triangular file cuts the teeth out. The artisan arrives at the equal size of the teeth merely by eye except that he chooses a small file for fine teeth and for coarse teeth, a stronger file. Unquestionably, everyone knows that the teeth of a saw are spaced from each other or that they stand obliquely from the blade. The artisan makes the bending back of the teeth an easier task with a saw set [Figure I] into which it fits so that the point of the tooth, for example, comes to lie over a notch at [a], and alternately bends a tooth to the right, then another back to the left. At last he sharpens each side of a tooth with a file. The filed edge of each tooth must appear on the right on one side of the saw{Page 147}and on the left on the other however. The toolsmith makes large saws with the same processes but uses Swedish iron. The teeth will not be bent outward with the saw set but rather will be bent outward on the edge of the anvil with a hammer. Only the Bohemian saws have teeth set straight up. They will not be made in the local area, however.b) The bits are just as important as the saws for the operations of most of the artisans of the world. In general, all bits will be divided by their form into either straight bits or worm bits, and each receive various names again according to their size and according to their use. It will be too extensive to recount the names of all the bits. A. Among the straight bits [Figure VII, VIII] are the particular bits of the pump makers and the carpenters. The cut of these bits advance along a straight line, and the point has the form of the point of a strong, hollowed out spoon. The bits with which the pumps will be bored out for a second time have a special feature; that is a hook which stands on the tip and pulls out the chips. A small alteration of the tip and the cutting edge divides the straight bit into the first cutters and the second cutters. The latter [Figure VIII] cut on both sides. The first cutter cuts only on the left side. {Page 148}Moreover, the tip on the latter bits are cut and the flap forestalls it a bit so that the bit can cut more efficiently [Figure VII a]. The toolsmith forges out a bar of iron as it should appear for the haft, and leaves a strong piece on the end for the cutting edge. The latter he spreads out into a somewhat flattened form. If the bit is to be a second cutter, then he lays a thinner forged piece of steel over the entire flat piece. For the first cutter though, only a narrow piece is placed on the left side. In both cases, the steel and the iron will be welded together. He places the steeled iron heated between the arms of the bending iron [Figure II], drives it out with the peen of the hammer into a half of a hollow cylinder, draws it out a bit thinner and sharpens the cutting edges. Finally, the outermost tip of the bit will be forged out on a rounded off edge [a] of the bending iron following the form described. The second cutter receives this form, but the tip of the first cutter [a] will be cut off and this is accomplished with a file for the small bits, but for large ones they must first be split from each other with a chisel and then filed out, and the largest part bent out while heated to some extent. With the bits, hardening is necessary and if the hardness is going to be good then the metal workers must be familiar with the nature of the steel that he wants to harden. He lets the bits become white hot, and{Page 149}when he takes them out of the forge, he sticks the tip into tallow, and following that places the whole bit into cold spring water. He places it then onto the glowing coal and takes the heated steel again from the fire, when the metal takes on a straw color. However, if he has noticed during the forging that the steel is hard, then he leaves it in the fire until, following the straw color, it blues. The toolsmith sharpens the cutting edges with the file before the hardening. To these bits also belong the "wine tasting bit" that has very short cutting edges and has a solid round head above these.B. The worm bits [Figure IX] have a spiral cutting edge [a] and a screw shaped tip [b] as well. They are needed by the wheelwright, carriage maker, and by all other woodworkers besides. They are most common in everyday life also. They will be forged like the straight bits and only steeled on one side. In the bending iron [Figure II] they also receive the hollowed out form of a half cone after which they must still be spiraled on the stake though. The toolsmith places it heated onto the head of the stake [Figure III], strikes on the bit with the hammer and turns it around on the aforesaid tool slowly. His eye must recognize the proportion that is to be given. The spiraling of the foremost point, for which a pointed peg is left{Page 150}during the forging, is nearly filed out like a thread of a wood screw. This, and also the former bits, receive a band on the haft into which a wooden handle will be fastened. One forges it round on the beak iron and welds it on to the haft of the bit. It is self evident that the worm bit is also hardened in the manner described above.c) In various regions there are special compass smiths, but in Berlin the iron dividers for the craftsmen will be made by the toolsmith. Each leg of the dividers [Figure X ab,ac] will be forged in a pointed form from iron and the points will be steeled. On the thick end of each leg, the compass smith leaves a protruding piece and it receives this from the forging very easily by means of an attachment on the edge of the anvil. It is known, that each compass has a thread on the thick end that consists of one or two cuts and into which one or two small pieces of iron [a,e] fit, and both will be formed from the broad head of the leg. The cuts as well as the indentations will be cut out with the chisel and the file must adjust the parts of this screw so that they fit each other. Finally, a hole will be struck with a punch through the thickest end [a] into which a rivet is fastened which unites both legs. On each side of the rivet, the compass tends to have a {Page 151}half round knob that is also indicated at [a] and this will be separately forged, swaged, and fastened onto the compass by the rivet. The file must give each leg the necessary shape before assembly and then smooth them. Calipers result in just this way, and the points of their legs will only be bent by the hammer while hot.d) Only a few small articles are left, whose manufacture will at once be apparent. Normally, when the hammer is forged, a steel plate is placed onto its face which one unites with the iron by welding it together. In steeling the peen, one splits this with a chisel, places a forged piece of steel in the opening, and welds both metals together. The eye for the handle, the toolsmith punchs with a drift. If the hammer is to be worked out with decorations, this is attended to with the files and chisels. Each leg of a pliers will first be forged straight and through a treble attachment on the anvils edge, the extension under the threading results as does the double attachment under the jaws. The hammer gives each piece its distinct form from the forging. The jaws will be steeled, sharpened with a file, and bent and adjusted on the round horn of the beak iron. A punch bores a hole through both legs below the jaws, through which one places a rivet {Page 152}at red heat and each tip will be formed into a strong knob. The file also must finish everything. The former chisel the toolsmith forges along with its tang from Swedish iron, cuts the dull edge with a chisel, places a forged steel cutting edge into the opening, and welds the steel and iron together. It will be hardened like a bit, afterwards the edge will be filed, and ground on a familiar grind stone. For this reason, the chisel only lacks the tang of the sculpting chisel on which the wooden handle will be set on, and this by contrast, receives a strong iron head by forging. Otherwise they will be manufactured like the sculpting chisel. For a plane iron, the toolsmith first draws a rectangular but strong sheet out lengthwise, lays it against a forged out piece of steel on the side where there are no oblique surfaces over the cutting edge and joins it to the iron by welding it together. On the other side of the plane iron as always the arrangement of the oblique surface has already been made by forging, afterwards one forms it out with the file though and grinds it finally on the grindstone. The plane iron for the wood workers will be first worked out in the manner above. On the forged iron the toolsmith draws the hollow grooves and the remaining panels with the assistance of a wooden model which the wood worker delivers to him and cuts{Page 153}it out with a file. One gives an edge to this last tool merely with a file and the toolsmith leaves it to the wood worker to fully sharpen it with a hand whetstone. [Figure XI] will give a sufficient concept of this last plane iron. From these examples one can easily imagine the manufacture of the remaining tools, for example, a carving tool for the joiner, the toolsmith forges first with its tang from Swedish iron, steels it, hardens it like a bit, and finally grinds it. The latter process also applies to the forming chisel and the plane iron. A draw knife of the carriage maker receives a tang on each end though, which will be bent around on the beak iron into a right angle, etc. B. The kitchen utensils that the toolsmith displays for sale will be forged partly from solid iron and partly assembled from sheet iron. Among these are the trivit, the fire tongs, pans of all types, coffee drums, braziers, iron candlesticks, coffee grinders, etc. a) For example, he forges the trivit from solid iron and he uses only native iron for this. As is well known, this consists of a rim and three feet. The rim will first be drawn out to the proper size from a straight bar and afterward will be bent into a circle on the round horn of the beak iron with a hammer, so that the scarfed ends of the rim lie on top{Page 154}of each other. One forges each foot separately and it receives a point on one end, the other end will be bent around the edge of the anvil a bit, however, in order that the finished trivit stands steady. Likewise, on the edge of the anvil, the toolsmith bends the point of each foot around at a right angle. The place on the rim where the feet will be welded on, one beats down somewhat with the peen of the hammer and it only needs to be mentioned here that when a foot is to be welded to the joint of the rim, the ends of the rim will be joined by this welding as well. The manner by which the iron worker welds the rim together has already been set forth in the foregoing text. Finally the toolsmith lets the trivit get red hot, and then smoothes and adjusts it on the horn of the beak iron. For this operation, the three points in the opening of the rim will be bent down a little, so that they can thus better hold the belly of the kettle.b) A coffee drum has two parts, the drum itself [Figure XIIab], and a solid trestle [cd]. Of the latter, there is nothing more to mention than that it will be made with processes of the blacksmith and one will therefore only discuss the actual drum. The side sheet [ef], the toolsmith cuts out of sheet and bends it with the hammer on the brazier stake [Figure V]. On the double circumference [Figure XI eg,fh], {Page 155}he raises a small fold or rim on the outside with the peen of the hammer and rivets the ends of the side sheet that are beaten over each other with iron nails. In the middle, he cuts out a square hole ik with the chisel which is closed by a door, however, during the use of the drum. The door therefore can be pushed back and forth on the drum between two slots. The function of these slots [ih,nk] makes it important that they separate the door somewhat from the body so that the door can be pushed between them. The toolsmith therefore gives them a small rim in the middle following the length of the entire sheet. He uses the edge of the anvil and the hammer for this. The two floors [eg, hf] will be joined to the side sheet by means of a rabbet. It has already been said, that the side sheet receives a raised rim on both ends. According to the circumference of this rim, the toolsmith measures off the two floors with a compass, beats down the projecting strip of the floor around the rim of the side sheet, and drives both parts onto each other tightly with the hammer. An iron rod [ab] passes through the axis of the center body. This receives a small crank at [b] by forging; at [c], a head; and at [k], a square hole into which a tenon {Page 156}is placed and by this means the rod [lm] is fastened into the body. For the sake of durability, one lays a small washer under the head and the pin.c) On the cofee grinder there are two pieces of iron. The ring [Figure XIV] moves the wooden box of the grinder directly, and the stone [Figure XV] allows it, as is well known, to turn around. The ring [Figure XIV] will be bent from a flat forged sheet on the beak iron, and welded together. Its inner surfaces one smoothes with the countersink (reamer) in the manner that has already been discussed in the description of this instrument. The triangular files give the ring interior slots or notchs that run obliquely across the surface. On both ends of the ring a strap is fastened in the middle. The upper one, one will notice in the hole of the cross section [Figure XIV cb]. The lower, however, is at [cd]. In the middle of each strap, a hole is punched with a drift punch and the hole [c] holds the tang [ef] of the stone, in the hole [g], the same tang runs loosely however. The straps [ab,cd] will be fastened by means of a tenon on their ends and a mortise in the circumference of the ring. The hammer drives the side of the mortise tightly onto the tenon and in this way unites both parts. Thus one easily grasps that the double straps must be fastened into the ring at the same time along with the stone [Figure XV]. The stone will first be forged from iron {Page 157}and afterward filed. The spiral grooves or notchs will be cut out with a triangular file. A few screws that fit into holes with the screw threads [h] in the ring join the iron to the wooden box. The manufacture of the small handle [Figure XV pq] can easily be imagined.d) A brazier of a foot in diameter shall close this section. The actual basin [ab] of [Figure XVI] will be made from iron sheet as is well known. Holes will be cut out with a round punch [Figure VII] here and there on the sheet to convey the draft of air. This sheet receives its bending as the coffee drum does on the brazier stake [Figure V] and it will be rivetted together in just the manner that the drum is. Around the upper circumference lies an iron ring; the smallest ring to hold onto the basin, and the flaps hold on a joint. The base [cb] usually projects a bit from the body [ab]. Therefore it cannot be directly united by a rabbet to the side sheet [ab], but the toolsmith makes three holes through the floor instead, rivets three tenons onto the inner surface of the basin [ab], places this through the holes in the floor, and gives the pegs a head with a hammer. The three side irons [de, fe, ge] will be forged from solid iron and finished with a file. The toolsmith bends back the flaps [d, f, g] on{Page 158}each end of the irons, and welds all three irons together at [e] in such a manner that a disc results under the hammer. Through the middle point of this disc, a hole will be punched with a drift to which the tap gives threads into which a screw of the rod [eh] will be screwed. Each side iron holds together with the body [ab] by means of a transverse iron that is fastened by a rivet on each end on the basin [ab] and the side iron. The grate will be forged like the tripod usually, and rivetted on a bit below the middle of the basin [ab] by a tenon. The narrow part of the rod [eh] as well as the knob [k] will be formed in a swage (Volume 5 page 210). Instead of the latter, one sometimes drives brass knobs onto the bar as well. The artisan gives these a screw on both ends [e, h] with the screw plate. It has already been said that they will be screwed onto the disc [c] under the side iron and, in just this manner, they join the feet [hl, hm, hn] as well. Each foot will be forged separately and when they have knobs, then these will be brought to completion in a swage. The toolsmith must adjust these to the side irons by welding them together in such a manner under the hammer that a common disc results at [h] into which the female screw will be cut with a tap in order to bind the bar [eh] with the feet.{Page 159} V. It is nearly superfluous to repeat for each trade that the apprentices study for three or four years if they are in a position to pay an apprenticeship fee; without it, they study for five years however. At least this proves true for most of the trades of which the toolsmith is one example. It is just as common too that the journeymen must travel for three years especially because this practice is newly confirmed by the laws of the state. This particular point, one does not find to be true for all artisans at least; that is, that the journeymen of the toolsmiths receive a freely given present from their fellow journeymen. A journeyman that wishes to enter among the remaining established toolsmiths must make a pump borer, a block saw (a large hand saw of the joiner) and a trepanning tool for proof of his skill.
Harold // 5:01 AM
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TRADES AND ARTS The CutlerCopyright: Harold B. Gill, III; 1991P. N. SprengelHandwerke und KuensteVolume 6 Section 7{Page 183}The CutlerI. Contents: The term "cutler," as commonly used, includes three different artisans; among these are the scissor smith, the actual cutler, and the surgical instrument maker. Scissor smiths are seldom found in cities, but are only found in the knife factories, and in Berlin this profession has died out some time ago. In their workshop, nothing but crude scissors are made that are made by both of the remaining cutlers as well. Thus only the work of the cutlers will be described in this section, and the surgical instrument makers' work will be described in the following section. Their common processes will be divided between both sections.The most common cutler forges his blades, forks, and scissors but the majority of his work is done with the file and the grindstones. Besides this, he must understand the art of cutting, working with the file, and polishing, the materials from which he manufactures the handle of the knife.{Page 184}II. Among the materials of these artisans, there is nothing more to mention other than that he forges his products from Swedish iron and, in the local area, commonly from Cologne steel. For the handle of the knife, he purchases different types of hard wood, particularly ebony, in addition to ivory, horn, bone, mother of pearl, etc; and, for polishing, emery, tripoli, and olive oil.Note: The proscribed ebony grows in India and Africa and has a natural black color along with a superior hardness. Mother of pearl will be cut from the oyster of the true pearl.III. Except for the familiar tools for forging; the files, the chisels, and other pieces that have already been named in the foregoing sections, the following tools must still be described, if one is to form an accurate conception of the work of the cutler.A. The knife jig [Plate VI Figure I] appears outwardly to be a nail header of the blacksmith. Only instead of the square hole of the latter tool, the knife jig receives a hole [a] following the form of the blade of a knife. Because the artisan places the forged blade into this hole and the tang into a hole [a] of the die [Figure II] when he wants to form the disk below the blade. The round iron die, that is about a foot long {Page 185}therefore has a hole [a] on its base surface following the different forms of the tangs which on a few are rectangular [Figure II 1] and with others are broad and flat [Figure II 2].B. The straightening hammer [Figure III] has a narrow and somewhat bent peen on both sides with an sharply angled edge. The knife blades warp when one has hardened them and they must therefore be straightened again with this hammer.C. The grinding machine [Figure IV] is among the most useful instruments of the cutler. It will be set in motion by a great wheel [ab] that is six feet high and that is turned by a separate person during the grinding. A glance at the illustration will show that it runs on a wooden frame, and will be moved by means of a handle. Roughly three feet from the wheel a second wooden frame extends that consists of two wooden beams [cde] and a container of wood [fg] that stands between the two beams. Both beams [cde] bear an iron capstan [ch] that is held at [c] by a small screw with a handle and at [h] by a tenon. The tip of the capstan is placed in a mortise of the screw [c] and the tenon [h]. Thus one can easily see that the capstan [ch] can be taken off and this is necessary for this reason; the cutler uses grindstones and {Page 186}polishing disks of different sizes and character. The capstan of all grinding stones and polishing disks of a master must thus have the same length. The screw [c] lies half in the beam [cd] and the remaining part will be surrounded by an iron bushing [i], that is screwed onto either side of the screw with a small screw so that one can fasten the screw [c] again when it wobbles somewhat. With most of the polishing mills of the cutlers instead of the screw [c], a movable piece of wood opens that can be fastened by a wedge. The first arrangement is unquestionably more advantageous though. On the capstan [ch] a wooden roller [k] is placed that is joined by a cord [ka] to the great wheel [ab] and a grind stone or a polishing disk. The capstan will appear distinctly with its pulley and polishing disk or grind stone over the machine in [m], [n], and [o]. Between the beams [cd,e] and the wheel [ab] stands an inclined wooden bench on which a cushion rests at [c]. During grinding, the cutler leans the whole length of his body on the bench and this is cut out round at the forward end so that the large grindstones have room to move. The local cutler follows the practice of the French in adopting this position and it unquestionably depends only on the habit with which one is familiar whether this position confers upon their hand a greater steadiness or not, since the English {Page 187}master sits in front of his grinding mill. The cutler has grind stones of different sizes whose diameters are graduated. The reason will be shown below. Coarse grindstones naturally attack the metal more sharply than fine ones, and it is therefore advantageous for one to possess grindstones of different qualities also. The largest of the polishing disks must constantly conform to the size of the grindstone with which a surface has been ground. Therefore there is a polishing disk for every grindstone. They are either made merely of wood or their face may also be covered with leather.D. The ferrule iron [Figure V] has the form of the fitting of a knife handle on its side surface, that will be cut from one piece. It is tapered on the end for that reason so that one can press out and form fittings of various thickness since this is the function of this tool. E. The fittings of the knife whose handle consists of two halves will be formed with the binding iron [Figure VI]. The one end [a] of the iron therefore has the familiar form of the fittings of the blade the other [b], the fitting on the lower side of the plate. Should the fitting receive a design, then they will be imprinted into the iron. F. On the wooden handle [a] of the polishing wood [Figure VII] are placed three ends of wire [b] {Page 188}on which the edged handle of a horse tail will be placed during polishing. G. The wooden file vice [Figure VIII] is joined together from two triangular wooden pieces [ab, cd] by a rivet [d] and a wedge [e] presses both wooden pieces together at [b] when one holds fast the ring of a scissors with this instrument for polishing so that he does not touch the finish of the edge. H. With a small iron fret saw that is not much bigger than the illustration [Figure IX], the small metal designs will be cut out which the handle of fine knives sometimes display. I. The fork jig [Figure X] is a small anvil on a small anvil stump. The anvil is hollowed out at [b]. The illustration presents two variations of this small tool, on which the prongs of the forks will be set straight. IV. The products of the cutler one can sum up with three words, because they make nothing other than the knives, forks, and scissors of differing sizes and quality. A. The knives can be divided into knives with flat and pointed tangs and folding knives. Their various names reflect the different uses that are well enough known from common experience.{Page 189} a) If the handle of a knife is worked from one piece then the cutler must give the blade a pointed tang that he cements into the handle.A. Only very fine knife blades will be forged entirely from steel because normally the core of the knife is iron. In the latter case, the cutler forges a piece of Cologne steel that is about one inch long, a bit broader, and a quarter inch thick. He unscrews the jaws of his vice from each other, lays the steel on the jaws and folds it together with a dull chisel. In the folded steel, he places a thin and round bar of iron, welds the two metals together and draws them out into a blade. On the side where both ends of the folded steel collide, the back of the blade is formed and thus, on the opposite side, the edge is formed. When the blade has received its rough shape from the hammer, then the cutler cuts it away from the thin bar of iron, leaving a piece from the latter metal from which he forges the pointed tang with a small sledge hammer. The whole knife will afterward be brought to red heat, the blade will be placed in the hole of the knife jig [Figure I a] and the hollowed out die [Figure II 1] will be placed onto the tang. A few blows of the hammer that will be directed to the die{Page 190}form the disk that one notices beneath the blade on a knife of this type [Figure IX b]. The further forming, or, according to the language of the artisans, the fashioning, must be given to the blade by the files. With a moderately cut file, both their rough surfaces will be smoothed, by which means an edge will be thinned at the same time and this same instrument finishes the back and the ring [b]. The metal will already be soft enough from the oft-repeated heating during forging and therefore the cutler takes care not to heat it anew. On the other hand, hardening is necessary for all the cutting implements and therefore it is necessary for knife blades as well. The cutler only does hardening by a very simple procedure. They merely place the red hot blade into cold water but not too quickly and not too slowly because without this prudence the metal will distort severely. The hardened blades will warp however, if the cutler does not decrease the hardness by the following procedure, namely, by polishing the blade with a whetstone a bit and afterward placing it on the glowing coals. Table knives, with which this text is concerned at this point, remain on the coals until they lose the straw color a bit already and begin to turn red because they must receive an appropriate temper if they are not to break apart. As is well known, they will now be placed for a second time into cold water. Nearly all blades distort during hardening and therefore they must{Page 191}be beaten straight again on the anvil with the straightening hammer [Figure III]. It can be recognized best of all whether or not a blade is straight over a grindstone if they touch on the stone precisely. Therefore the cutler grinds his blades off in the rough after the straightening and if he finds places still that are not completely straight yet, then he straightens them anew and then smoothes them completely on the grindstone by means of the grinding machine [Figure IV]. Overall, there is no better means for smoothing for iron and steel when these metals have been hardened than grinding. It simply must allow for the nature of the surfaces because circular and oval surfaces cannot be smoothed on the grindstone and bodies that have many small smooth surfaces one smoothes with little effort by another means that will be revealed in the following text. The rules of grinding will be these, approximately. To begin with, the surfaces that one wants to grind rest on the grindstone in such a manner that they take their position, not along the edge circumference, but on the thick part of the stone instead and if they are longer than the width of the stone, thus they must constantly be pulled back and forth on the stone. During this operation, the grindstone should be frequently moistened with water. Secondly: if an flat or somewhat rounded surface is to be ground, then the cutler must put a large grindstone on the grinding machine. The surfaces that one wants to grind are to be one inch broad {Page 192}thus a similarly larger curve in the circumference of a large grindstone deviates from a straight surface only slightly as is well known. If one grinds, in contrast, with a stone whose diameter is small, thus a curve of the grindstone that is one inch long has a great roundness. From this it follows naturally that, at times, one hollows out a surface with small stones; at times, that the smaller the stone, the more it tends to hollow out a surface. If the cutler has not got a stone that has a suitable breadth for a smooth surface that one wants ground off thus he must depress the blade constantly right to left across the circumference of the stone and by this means he remedies the malady. In contrast, he holds the knife tightly on a large grindstone and only in this case he moves it inward somewhat if the surface is to receive a subtle roundness. This last situation happens particularly with a table knife. Thirdly: If a cutler has a fine and coarse wheel of necessary size, then he takes off a surface with the coarse one first, and finishes it afterwards with the fine stone. Fourthly: The coarse stone gives the edge of the knife an angle that is applied during use the same. This must therefore be gone over with a fine stone free hand after the polishing. For a table knife, one removes this with a fine sand stone,{Page 193}in contrast, spring knives and barber's knives, the cutler grinds off on a so called stripping stone with olive oil. The last law of grinding leads naturally to the polishing. The polishing disks must be made from pear wood or from another hard wood so that they can take hold of the metal properly. There is nothing remaining to mention about polishing, but that, as has already been said, the disks must be just so large as the grindstones; that one covers their face with powdered emery and olive oil and the knife is moved according to just the same rules that have already been illustrated above. It certainly amounts to the same thing, whether the knife is polished before the joining of the handle or afterward. However, since fractures and other defects of the blade can best be discovered in grinding, so that one must often throw away the blade in this case, thus the cutler is spared time and trouble with these defective blades, when he grinds them, before they are joined on the handle.B. This leads though to the manufacture of the handle of a knife. To begin the same example, a table knife with a pointed tang will be fixed with cement into a one piece handle. Normally this knife receives a handle of ebony, rosewood, beech wood, or other hard and rare woods. {Page 194}Meanwhile it is not a lie, that often superior handles of ebony are sold for genuine because one has merely artificially changed pearwood into ebony. The wood considered will be cooked in alum water with chips of brazil wood and covered with the familiar iron black. If the corrosion turns out well, then such a wood can be worked and polished as well as ebony. From all these woods, the cutler cuts the handle with a knife in the rough in good order and gives it its familiar form with a rasp. This same tool makes an incision around the whole handle at [Figure XI b] along the breadth and thickness of the fitting, that the cutler calls the band. This also applies to the fitting [c] that is called the cap. Finally a hole will be bored with a bit on the bottom surface of the handle at [b] for the tang. The handles of very fine knives also receive a few hollow grooves and round rods all along their length. The cutler has a tool that is like a molding plane iron with which he shaves out the rods. In an emergency, he deepens the hollow grooves with a rasp afterwards, that is like a stout saw. The cutler smoothes the wooden handle with powdered pumice stone and water applied with a horse tail. If the handle is round, then he fastens a few horse tails together, plunges them first into water, and, after this, into pumice powder, and rubs the wood with it.{Page 195}If the handle is faceted then the bundled horsetails would rub off the edges and therefore one uses a cleaning wood [Figure VII] in this case when beforehand horsetail is placed on each end of a wire. The handle receives the complete polish if it is rubbed with coal dust and olive oil applied by felt. The band [b] and the cap [c] will be made out of brass, tombec, or silver sheet. Both of the first types of sheet metal, the artisan can get from the brass workers. He makes the sheet silver himself, however. He casts a silver ingot from eight to ten ounces of silver, heats it in the forge as often as is necessary, and draws it out with the peen of the hammer, smoothing it rather often with the face of the hammer. For the band as well as the cap, he cuts a narrow strip from the sheet that is as broad as the slot considered at [b] and [c] and a bit longer than the thickness of these same parts. He bends each narrow strip freehand triangularly and solders the joined ends of the silver sheet with hard solder or silver solder on a soldering lamp. For brass sheet, however, brass solder will be used to solder the ends together on the coals. The soldered sheet, he places onto the ferrule iron and presses it onto the tool until it has acquired the size of the slot of the handle onto which it is to be fastened. He therefore holds the ferrule iron against the handle and notes with{Page 196}a file mark how far the sheet must be pressed onto the iron. The band [b] will merely be driven onto the slot of the handle when the sheet is thick. However, one must presume for the thin sheets that they will tear so one affixes it with sealing wax. All of this also applies to the cap [c] when the base has been soldered on beforehand. For this reason, the cutler sets the cap on a piece of sheet metal, holds both pieces together with a small clamp, and joins them in the way described by soldering. The flashing of the base will be cut away. How the fittings are polished has already been explained in the brass workers' section. Finally the cutler fills the hole [b] up in the centerline of the handle with powdered rosin and chalk, heats the tang of the blade, places it in the cement, and drives it as far in until the disk of the blade closes precisely onto the band [b] of the handle. Meanwhile, the tang will be rivetted under the base of the cap. The handles of porcelain, enamel, and silver, the cutler merely joins with the blade with the cement above, because they do not fall among his products.b) During the forging of the knife with a flat tang that is just as broad as the handle is, no variation from the former type of knife occurs other than that the tang will be drawn out flat and that the cutler, in forming the disk [Figure XI b],{Page 197}must choose a die that has a flat hole according to the form of the tang [Figure II 2]. There is more to remark upon about the handle of the knife. We see daily that on each side of the tang the handle is fastened with a few rivets and the glance will teach us also that this handle is made from different substances. With table knifes there are the following variations of handles. 1) The tang of the poorest knives are covered by handles of antler. The cutler cuts a piece from the antler with a saw corresponding to the size of each particular handle, and divides it with the same instrument along its length into two equal parts. If the halves are still thick then he removes the excess with a rasp. Because the horn is bent, he must cook it in water and soften it in order to bend it straight in a vice. As soon as the handles are cold and hard, then he measures each off according to the size of the tang and cuts along the sketched stripe of the perimeter with a saw that will be described in the following section or, if only a little is to be taken off, then he merely removes it with the rasp. 2) The handle will have a better appearance that one cuts out of bone with a saw. For this, one uses the leg of an ox. They will also be measured off following the tang and the outer side will be further worked out with the file according to the familiar form.{Page 198}Handles of this type have the shortcoming however of being extraordinarily brittle and particularly that they can not be drilled well. Only with very poor knives do they receive their yellow color because art has found the means to change the natural color of the bones as well to that of ivory. Both substances receive a red color if one cooks them in alum water with brazil wood and the bones can lie in it for two to three weeks. If they lie just as long in alum water and urine into which one has sprinkled indigo, then they take on a blue color. In contrast, if they are allowed to lie in aqua fortis into which copper filings have been dissolved to saturation for only one night, they will become green. 3) The ivory will be worked like bones, except that one must cut them with good saws because of its hardness but one uses it only rarely for the handles of ordinary knives. Bones, as well as ivory, can be polished by the same method as wood except that both will be smoothed to better advantage when the polishing disk is covered by leather covered with tripoli and olive oil. 4) As rarely as one sees table knives with handles of ivory, so frequently are the handles made of horn that has been disguised in various artificial ways. For knife handles, the horn of cattle is most useful. The{Page 199}artisan warms it on a stone in the coals of the forge, lays it between two iron plates covered with tallow and clamps it in the vice. The horn will be pressed completely flat by this means and made useful for handles. As it comes from the pressing it gives a fine handle already that has a white color mixed with gray when it is polished. However the cutler is not yet happy with horn for this use. Especially among folding knives, one notices handles whose base color is brown with which yellow stripes and flecks are mixed and these are also cut from pickled horn. One mixes lime, silver filings and lye together and paints this mixture on the handle. This indeed gives it a changed color, but they make it brittle also. Therefore, old knife handles of this type have a poor appearance. Finally, there are also handles whose visible surfaces are covered completely by little points or grains and these have a black color in common, although sometimes they exhibit a red or green color. These are also pressed from horn. When the cutler presses the horn as has already been mentioned, then he places an iron plate, onto which points or grains have been excavated deeply, on top of one side of the horn, and by this means, during the pressing, the rough form of the handle mentioned results. For black handles of this type, he uses goats'{Page 200}horn; for the red and green handles, he colors ox horns with the pickle for bone. Working and polishing the horn is like doing the same to bone. 5) Only rarely does one lay out the handle of a table knife with mother of pearl, because it is expensive and very tiresome to work. The smallest oyster gives a long straight handle and this brittle material cannot be bent. Therefore, one uses it commonly only for the handles of small pocket knives. The saw must have a very good blade made from a clock spring if it is to cut mother of pearl and because of its hardness and brittleness, these handles can be worked just as well on the grindstone as with the file. No handle takes on a polish as easily as these, however, because one can rub them merely with a burnisher. Just as rarely are table knives given handles of 6) whale bone and 7) tortoise shell, of which the next section will explain most details.All these handles, the cutler joins in the following way to the flat tang of the blade. Through the flat tang, he drills three holes with a bit and following the measure of the tang he drills through the handle when it has already been finished as well. In the latter case, he sets the bit, not into the brace, but rather he sticks a stick on the bit in a horizontal hole on the side of a vice,{Page 201}sets down next to this instrument, holds the handle in the left hand against his knee and then the bit against the marked place on the handle. He moves the bit with his right hand in the familiar way by means of a bow. Before the handle will be rivetted on the tang, the cutler solders the fittings under the blade [Figure XI b] and on the lowest end of the tang [c]. The upper fitting [b] he calls the forward little binding because at the same time a middle binding will be placed at the middle of the tang, particularly for mother-of-pearl, and the lowest [c] is called the cap. One can consider only a knife of this type in order to teach at the same time that the forward fitting [b] as well as the cap [c] are soldered on from two halves onto the tang. The cutler forms each hollow plate of the forward fitting and the cap with a ferrule iron and the similar cap iron [Figure VI]. He lays the end of the iron that will form the piece of silver or piece of brass that is to be cut on a strong tin plate, and drives it into the tool with a hammer. On the indentation, that results from this on one side of the tin plate, he lays the plate to be cut, and simply drives it with the ferrule iron into the indentation of the tin. Who does not see that in this method that both sheets of the forward fitting and the cap will come so close to {Page 202}completion with little effort that one has only yet to solder them? The cutler melts tin in a crucible, files the spots on the tang where he will set the sheet on, smears them with turpentine, sticks them into molten tin, covers them for a second time in turpentine, and places the sheet on them quickly. In just this moment he wraps them with yarn, covers them with loam so that the tin will not cover the sheet at all, and lays it on the coals. In the knife factories, one dissolves sal-ammoniac in water, and uses it instead of turpentine. Now each handle can be fit in with the file between the forward ferrule [b] and the cap [c], and will be rivetted onto the tang. Each rivet will be cut from wire and it must not be too stout or it will break the handle apart. Finally both handles will be polished by the process that is cited above for each type.c) The blade of the folding knife [Figure XII] have an action instead of a tang, or a narrow piece of iron, that rests against a spring in the handle. They will otherwise be forged like the former blades and one can blue them after hardening. What has been said above about grinding and polishing applies to the blade of a folding knife as well. There remains then only the manufacture of the handle. The cutler forges two sheets that he calls skelps and these, he {Page 203}gives the complete form of the particular handle following a pattern. The finer the knife is to be, the thinner the skelps must be drawn, so that they are not a burden to their future owner. The skelps will be drilled through in three places in such a manner that a rivet can be placed through at b which joins the blade to the handle and so that both the rivets [c] and [d] fasten the spring the same way also. Each skelp will be covered by a handle of bone, horn, ivory etc. of whose manufacture one can read on page 197. The spring [bd] separates both of the skelps from each other and must be exactly as thick as the action of the blade [a]. One can see them disassembled in [Figure XIII]. The cutler forges it from good steel and gives it spring temper. He heats it to red for this purpose likewise and quenches it in water, but doesn't place it in the coals. Instead of this, it is covered in tallow or olive oil, burned over the coals and stuck into cold water anew. One drills these only twice at [c] and [d] so that can be advanced after the joining of the blade with the handle under each other by means of the rivet [d] and [e], their spring tension at [bc] can press freely against the action. Normally this action [b] is a complete square so that it can exactly fill out the space between the spring and the inner side of the handle [c] in all the resting positions of the blade.{Page 204}Only very fine blades receive a rounded action so that they can be opened and folded comfortably. In the meantime, the knife receives sheet metal cheeks at [b] that are soldered on like the ferrules of the table knives with broad tangs. Against this one fastens rosettes of brass, tombec, and silver sheet on both ends of fine knives as the following section will show. On the poorer knives a piece of wood is placed at [f] between both skelps; in contrast, only fine knives receive a small tenon at [e] under the blade which moves the spring precisely when the knife is folded and separates the blade from the spring.d) The handles of a few spring knives will display brass and silver designs and these are among the most artistic and time consuming pieces. The cutler lets the brass plates that have a depression in the middle of their outer surface be cast by the brass founder. He fills this up with horn, into which designs of metal are pressed. The designs, he makes on brass or silver sheet, rivets three or four sheets together over each other, and cuts similar designs for a few knives with a small fret saw [Figure IX]. Each design will be inlaid on the handle of{Page 205}horn that has been suitably finished beforehand, softened in the fire on a stone, and smeared with lard and the handle clamped along with the design between the above-mentioned iron plates in the vice. This presses the metal into the softened horn and unites the design with the horn at the same time. The handles with the designs will only be rivetted through the circumference of the indentation of the brass plate. e) The open blade of such a folding knife cannot lie in the handle if one does not know a few small things of advantage. In Berlin, this knife is called a French knife. The action of the blade is given a notch [Figure XV a] with a file and the spring will be forged a bit broader toward the inside from [c] to [b] so that by this means a stop results at [b]. Besides this, the part [bc] receives a spring external to a broad head which rests on both sides against the handle and its skelps. The part [cb] is just as long as the part of the action to the notch [a]. If one straightens out the blade, then the notch [a] of the action falls under the stop of the spring at [b] and this holds the blade immovably as long as one bends the spring back on the outer head [cb]. With still more difficulty, the blade can{Page 206}be folded if the action holds its notch [a] and the spring, its stop [b] but the outer head [cb] falls away. Instead of this, the right handle will be joined by a tenon with a spring at [b] and only joined a rivet at [d] and [c] with the remaining parts. Besides this the hole of the handle under the strongest rosette [d] is much larger than the rivet. One can thus push back the handle along the line [db] somewhat and at the same time, the spring as well, because it holds together with the handle by means of a tenon. In this case the stop releases the spring at [b], the notch at [a] and the blade is allowed to lie in the handle.f) The local cutler will not stand for letting their shears or razors be called inferior than the English because they will be forged from only the steel and the master employs skill and care. If such a blade is to be good then they must be forged from the finest English steel. They will be drawn out very solidly under the hammer for a double reason, partly because the strong hardened steel would break apart if one wanted to take away the warping, that a blade will meanwhile receive during hardening, with a straightening hammer [Figure III] and because{Page 207}one must therefore erase the mistake during grinding; partly also, however, because the blade will be ground hollow. For this latter reason they also receive a strong back. During grinding the cutler must discover the exact nature of his steel so that he does not give it too little or too much heat, causing the blade to become either too hard or too soft. The file must fashion the blade as well and particularly define the heel above the handle. Likewise, this knife will be hardened with the greatest precision. When they are cooled from red hot in water then one grinds them free hand with a sand grindstone, allows them to run to a straw color only on the hot coals, and plunges them once more into cold water so that they receive a superior hardness. On the grinding machine [Figure IV] the surfaces will first be smoothed with a large grind stone, that gives them the complete hollowing. If a blade is warped in such a manner that they cannot erase the flaws on the grindstone then the cutler must throw it away. Finally, the grade will be ground off on a stripping stone. All of these operations require a good deal of precision and therefore it follows that the least cutler can manufacture razors.{Page 208}They usually receive a handle of tortoiseshell or whale bone but the working of these materials will be left for the next section. B. The cutler gives the finsest forks four tines, the most common have only two tines, however. The tines of the fork at least must be forged from steel, because iron tines would easily be broken during use. Each fork consists of four parts; of the tines [Figures XVI, XVII ab], the shank [bc], the tang, and the handle [cd] into which the tang is placed. If a fork is to receive three or four tines [Figure XVI], then the cutler forges out a piece of a bar of steel for this part that is as broad as all three tines with their space between. The shank [Figure XVI bc] will be forged round under the hammer; on the other hand, the tang will be completely formed out. The spaces between the tines one cuts out with a chisel, works out each tine with a file, and bends all of them a bit at the same time with a hammer. The file gives the shank a flat round form and a few knobs. The latter applies also to the forks that have only two tines [Figure XVII] except that the tines will be worked in a completely different manner. For them, one allows a flat piece to remain during the forging of the fork{Page 209}that is half as long as the finished tines and cuts it with a chisel along its length into two equal strips. These will be bent back in such a manner that they make a right angle to the shank and will be forged out with the hammer into pointed tines. One heats it red again, drives them together a bit with the hammer, and adjusts them with the fork straightener [Figure X]. In this last operation the cutler places the one tine in the opening [b] under the fork straightener and gives the other a suitable distance from the shank on the face [a] of this small anvil. He repeats the same operation for the other tine. The file must work out both tines along with the shank as well. A fork may have four or only two tines, so one gives them the temper described above so that the tines can be bent apprpriately. The reader will remember from the foregoing text that round and edged surfaces will not be ground. In contrast, one smoothes the tines as well as the shank free hand with an oil stone, rubs them with the help of a wood with emery and olive oil, and smoothes them finally with a burnishing steel. With just this same finish, one smoothes the outer surfaces of the spring of the folding knife. The handle of the fork must always coincide with the handle of the knife{Page 210}and therefore there is nothing special to mention about it. For the sheath over the handle, there remains either a strong piece of iron from the forging out of which they will be filed or one places a small piece of iron also on poor forks on each side of the tang while fitting on the handle.C. In the manufacture of shears the cutler must bring great precision to the work because they are among their most difficult products. The finest shears are made in the work shop of the surgical instrument maker and therefore the example in this section will be the large tailor's shears with which the operations of the manufacture this common utilitarian instrument shall be illustrated. To begin with, the names of the parts will be noted. [Figure XVIII ad, cd] are called the blades of the shears, the rectangular part [db] that a rivet pierces one calls the shield, which ends at both shanks with a stop [bf] and [bg] is the bar, the lower one following the form of the fingers have round rings along the length. The outside surface of the blades of a tailor's shears, along with the handle, are made of iron. The surfaces of the blade which move are made from steel however. The cutler forges a flat piece along the length of the blade on a bar of iron, places a piece of steel on the side where the cutting edge {Page 211}should be so that on both sides they project a bit from the iron, and welds the steel and the iron together. The hammer forms the blade and the shield as well as possible, along with the upper part of the handle [bg]. For the ring, the hammer draws out an oval piece of iron, and welds it together at [g] with the upper part of the handle [bg]. All the parts must be given their decoration with a file. The outer side of each blade receives a broad surface in the middle and on each side of this surface a small bend out of which the cutting edge results at [ad]. In filing all the parts, the cutler must hold the two shanks against each other fairly often in such a manner that the ring of one shank lies on the ring of the other and so that the shield and the cutting edge of both shanks cover each other in just this way because they must be the same size. The stop [bf], particularly, will be measured with all precision for both shanks to be the same size. Indeed there is a raised piece left in the forging for each stop but the file must establish the measured size of the stops exactly. To this end, the cutler places both shanks together in the {Page 212}aforementioned manner, clamps them with a wooden clamp in the vice and makes a file mark at [f] and [b] on the high edge of the shank. He files the stop [fb] along these marks on both shanks with great precision so the stop of both shanks fit each other exactly on being united. Skilled cutlers know to give the stop [fb] such a position that when, for example, the open shank [ab] of a finished shears rests on the stop of the shank [ce] at [f], both shanks make a normal cross. In this position, one can grind the shank of an old shears without knocking out the rivet. The shears must be run to a straw color in hardening. The handle [be] will be polished with the oil stone, emery, and the burnisher, (see page 209). On the other hand, the blades must be completely smoothed with the grindstone and the polishing disks. The actual edges of the shears [ad] and [cd] would not move however if the cutler did not adjust them against each other, or, according to their way of speaking, make the blades warped. In the deed, the blade [ad], [cd] stands twisted on the bar [b], [d] like the vanes of a windmill. The cutler clamps each shank in the vice, turns each blade around with a pair of tongs from [f] toward [d] along the inside{Page 213}a bit, and, from this, the edges will necessarily join each other tightly for grinding. He can achieve the same thing by the hollow grinding (page 192) only it is more time consuming. Meanwhile the one side of the edge [ad], [cd] will certainly be hollowed a bit on the grind stone. In grinding, there is nothing more to be mentioned but that the cutler must take care that he does not grind off the warping again in which practice does everything. Therefore he can give proof of his skill in this operation. Both shanks of a tailor's shears will be joined together by a rivet that has a strong head on both ends that is at least a quarter inch long. The one head holds together with the rivet; the other will be set on separately. Both are given a decorative form by the cutler with a file. The hole for the rivet must fit the shanks exactly and it will be bored the same size in both first. The fixed head of the rivet lies beneath the shank [ce] in the illustration. In this case, the cutler makes a slot on the circumference of the hole with a triangular file and with the file he gives the rivet a triangular tenon that is as strong and long as the hole considered{Page 214}is deep so that both pieces fit into each other precisely. The rivet will be struck with force into the whole of the shanks [ce] and who does not see that this shank will hold together immovably with the rivet? The upper part of the rivet remains completely round in contrast, and the hole of the shank [ae] at [h] will be widened a bit with a drift. On the projecting end of the rivet one places a hollow head at [h] and unites the rivet with a hammer. This separate head must therefore be bored through by a mandrel. From this follows, that the one shank [ae] of the tailor's shears freely moves on the rivet and the shank [ce] in contrast is united to the rivet. On the ring of the tailor's shears, the cutler rivets on a tenon [i]. If an old shears is to be ground again, then it comes apart a bit and the points could separate a bit from each other along the direction [ac], if one does not file off a bit from the tenon [i].{Page 215}APPENDIX On a trip to the hammer works not far from Neustadt- Eberswalde, that is described in the fourth volume, the author perceived the opportunity and inspected the knife factory of that city and in the neighboring regions. It would be superfluous to extensively describe the works of this type because the iron workers that will manufacture the same are more often described in the former sections. The advantage of such a factory is that an artisan of the other works with the hand and the machines ease many operations that rob the artisans in the towns of time and energy. Meanwhile the knife factory mentioned leaves the manufacture of the fine work to the cutlers of the towns and limits itself to the sale of the so called "currant" ware. Three different works belong to this factory that are wholly subordinate to a commander. In front of Neustadt-Eberswalde, a new suburb for the iron workers is established to which two grinding mills belong. Moreover, there are two separate works not but a half mile from the city, that support a factory of twenty four workers along with{Page 216}a grinding mill on the Regaese and on the Wolfswinkel two shear smiths where one has likewise built a special small grinding mill. On all these works, the present hereditary tenant of the factory the heir of the famous shop keeper, Mr. Splitgerber of Berlin, the following iron workers are set up. 1) cutlers and shearsmiths 2) handle cutters 3) polishers 4) padlock smiths that merely make pad locks. 5) compass smiths 6) file cutters 7) buckle and ring smiths that make the black buckles for the saddlers and harness makers. They forge the buckles from a small bar of iron and weld it together. 8) The bit makers 9) chain smiths that forge the small chains on the halter of the horses. In addition to these, the factory has the right to establish all type of iron workers. The artisans claim that the founders of the factory came from Gotha and Schmalkaldia and they have a common trade union among each other. Their apprentices study five years. The factory lets the iron be drawn at the neighboring iron forge and the craftsmen must receive it along with the other materials in the rough. In contrast they sell their work by the dozen and by the piece. They deliver their wares to all Saturday to the{Page 217}factory and a skilled cutler that one calls the visitor must be judged along with two visitor masters and break the most useless. There is nothing more to describe of these factories except the grinding mills. The largest in the suburb of Neustadt-Eberswalde was set up in the following form. A twenty fort high undershot water wheel [Figure XIX A] moves with the help of its axle [AB] two cog wheels [C] and [B]. The teeth of the latter wheel [B] which is eight feet in diameter grasps the gear [D] that has twenty rods and at the same time moves the cam wheel [E] that is seven feet in diameter by means of a common axle. This sets a gear [F] in motion on which there are eleven rods and the iron spindle on which this gear is placed carries two grind stones [G] and [H] that are six feet heat and five or six inches thick. The spindle is nine feet long and about four inches thick. The factory receives the stones from Niesse in Silesia. The second spur gear [C] whose diameter is eight feet grips a gear [J] that has eight rods and by means of a common axle will move the gear of a six foot high pulley [K]. A cord [KL] joins this wheel with a roller [L] that will be placed in the six foot high polishing disk [M] {Page 218}on the axle. If this disk should rest, then one can just take the cord [KM] off. The most important rule of grinding is that one does not heat the knife too much on the large grindstone, because it will become brittle. In polishing the grinder covers the face of the polishing disk with emery and olive oil and strikes both together with a hammer tightly so that it does not fall off in the rapid movement of the disk.
Harold // 4:53 AM
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TRADES AND ARTS The Surgical Instrument MakerCopyright: Harold B. Gill, III; 1991 P. N. Sprengel's Handwerke und KuensteVolume 7 Section 1The Surgical Instrument Maker{Page 3}I. Contents:A few cutlers are distinguished from the others in that they only manufacture instruments for the profession of surgery and therefore they are called surgical instrument makers. Basically, although they use the same tools and processes for their work as their fellow tradesmen, they must work out the instrument much more finely and more decoratively. The intention of this book is not to familiarise the reader with all the instruments of the surgeon but rather we will choose only a few pieces from the great assortment of these instruments so that the reader {Page 4}receives a comprehensive conception of the skill of these artisans. Understanding surgeons will easily forgive the author as far as possible if they find the language of the common man in the following text of this section.II. The place that this section has received in the sequence spares the reader the trouble of reading through an extensive description of the materials of the artisan so it is possible to repeat in just a few words what has not been said yet in the former section.A. The most important metal that the instrument maker works is English steel. Overall, with the instruments of the surgeons, one must mention that the artisan gives a superior sharpness and polish to spare the patients as much pain as possible. Therefore one chooses the best steel for this. This principle is omitted though for plaster shears and other pieces that do not disturb the human body and therefore these instruments will also be forged simply from Cologne steel. This has the shortcoming that its great gaps remain visible with the best polish. A few pieces are to receive a particular hardness and polish in no case whatsoever and these will therefore be forged simply from Swedish iron. An example is the handles of the shears. Still other {Page 5}surgical instruments must be particularly flexible and therefore one makes them out of brass or, better still, from silver. In addition to this, the surgeon meanwhile can let such instruments with which the metal is indifferent be manufactured from the noble metals or such few parts for decorative purpose as well, and therefore the instrument maker must be able to work in all metals. One will consider him in this section particularly as an iron worker especially since he handles the remaining metals with the processes of the goldsmith and brass worker that have already been described.B. The instrument maker manufactures handles and hafts on the instruments from ivory, whale bone, tortoise shell, bone, ebony and other hard types of wood.Note: It is well known, that one cuts ivory from the teeth of the elephant. The whale bone will be found in the mouth of the whale and the tortoise shell consists of the shell of the sea turtle. The latter, the instrument maker buys in tablets that are a little more than a half foot square and each tablet costs 5 Gr. 8 Pf.C. In polishing the steel, emery and olive oil are indispensible to the instrument maker, and besides these, for very fine instruments, he makes use of rouge and crocus martis. Soft metals, he polishs with tripoli, olive oil, pumice and Venetian soap and he uses the same materials for polishing the handles and hafts.{Page 6}Note: Rouge is an iron ore and crocus martis is a metallic earth that is prepared from iron rust.III. What is mentioned above about the materials of the instrument maker can be said of the tools that are already familiar from the former description of iron working. The following still deserve to be mentioned.A. The instrument maker often comes to a situation where they must drill holes in the steel and therefore the most important of the bits of this type will be reviewed.a) Bits with which iron and steel can best be bored have at the front, instead of a point, a broad sharp edge [Figure I a, Plate I] that must be hardened with the greatest care. One places the small iron in the cylinder of a brace and moves this in the manner already familiar with a bow. Should a hole be widened on one side, then one places the countersink bit [Figure I b] that has an angled point instead of the former into the cylinder. b) In just this way, the smaller bits will be set into motion also with which one widens the hole of a nut on one side like a bushing, in order to sink the head of a screw into this opening. The instrument {Page 7}maker calls these bits, dressing bits [Figure II]. The tenon [a] will be placed in the previously drilled hole and both of the cutting edges [b] and [c] hollow out the hole.c) If one wishs to give a hole threads with a tap and it is not yet large enough, then it will be widened with a reamer. In general, one understands a reamer to be a square pointed stick; one can hold it tightly on a ring as in [Figure III] or one can fasten it into a brace. (Volume 6 page 34.) d) The bit with which one drills bone, ivory, and other soft materials in contrast, has a broad pointed head at the front and will also be moved with a brace [Figure IV].B. The instrument maker cuts tortoise shell, ivory, and the like for the handles with a saw. The saw must be somewhat larger and stronger that cuts ivory on account of the hardness of this substance, than the saw that cuts the remaining substances of this type. The frame [Figure V dabc] is made of iron and the blade [cd] is made out of an English spring. These, the instrument maker buys in a narrow, rolled strip that are a little more than an inch wide. At [a], the saw has a wooden handle and, at [d], a brass wing nut on the screw on{Page 8}the tip of the blade. Using this, one can clamp the blade in the frame more tightly or more loosely.C. The burnishing steel is called a polishing steel in other workshops. An iron rod [Figure VI ab] is fastened in a block [cd] on a ring at [a]. Below [e], an oval piece of steel joins with the rod [ab]. The metal which one wishs to polish lies on the block [cd] and the worker moves the rod [ab] and the piece of steel as well by hand by the wooden grip [b].D. With the rosette die [Figure VII] on a lead plate, one gives the sheaths chased designs that are fastened at each end onto the handles of the knives by a rivet. The designs therefore must be cut deeply into the ground surface of the steel die. A tenon on the centerpoint of the engraved ground surface positions the hole for the rivet out of the rosette. E. The iron bow [Figure VIII], the instrument maker still gives the French name "Circiseau." He holds the blade of the shears tightly in a vice with this if he wants to file the rings and shanks of a shears. The two tenons [a] and [b] bear the jaws of the vice. F. The polishing machine of the instrument maker is not any different from the grinding machine{Page 9}of the cutler other than that they possess more grind stones and polishing disks of varying sizes and qualities. The grindstones as well as the polishing disks measure from two feet to two inchs in diameter and are proportionate in thickness. The artisan who furnished the author with instruction with a laudable willingness and skillfullness covers the face of a few polishing disks with copper sheet because it holds the metal better than the bare wood. He therefore polishs his instruments first on the polishing disks just mentioned, and afterward on the wooden ones. The handle of the knife will be polished on a disk that is covered by leather. (Volume 6 Page 185.)G. By the holder [Figure IX], the artisan refers to two woods [ab, cb] that are joined at [d] by an iron rivet. Small irons such as the iron for a bleeding spout will be placed in the juncture between both woods and these will be pressed together by the wedge at [e] if one wants to grind or polish the small irons.IV. The reader already is aware that he is not to expect a description of all surgical instruments, but rather only a few examples will illustrate the art of the instrument maker. These are the instruments in a so called bandaging tool kit, the knives for {Page 10}anatomical preparation and, in addition to this a few pieces further that will be needed only for a few particular occasions. One will certainly name all the connected instruments of this kind but, for the sake of brevity, these will suffice to give a closer conception of the work of the instrument maker.A. With a moderate acquaintance with the surgeon, one becomes familiar with those instruments that they carry in a bandaging kit and therefore they are the best example. One will have noticed the following pieces in the hand of the surgeon.a) In order to set a few things in the light similarly, that will be found among many instrument kits again, the beginning will be made with a description of the scalpel or incision knife that is among the most important pieces of the bandaging kit. It should be mentioned beforehand, that the surgeon separates his knives particularly into "Bistouris" and scalpels. The blades of the former can be folded into the handle but, with the latter, they stand immovably on the handle. Here the text only deals with the "Bistouris" but the scalpels will be found further below in the text also. The surgeon uses these knives if they see that it is necessary to cut into a wound and therefore the cutting edge is sometimes straight [Figure X] and sometimes curved [Figure XI] in order to be used in all instances.{Page 11} A. For just these reasons these knives must be forged from the best English steel. In the forge, the form or, to speak as the artisan does, the fashion of the knife is only shaped in the rough because the blade is almost nothing more than a smooth pointed sheet with a tang [Figure XI a] on which there is a catch, as is familiar, that rests on the handle and the knife holds the blade rigidly in an immovable position. Curved knives will just be bent further in the forge while hot with a hammer along a curve. In the first section of the former volume, one has already read that all the pieces must be heated, that the file should finish them, and this is all the more necessary with surgical instruments because one finishes these to the finest degree with the tools that have been mentioned. The instrument maker merely places his work on the glowing coals and leaves it to heat by itself and then become cold again.B. The file must do most of the finishing of the blade of the knife and with all pieces of this type. They thin the edge [b] much more than can be done under the hammer, smooth the back [c] and, when the knife receives a shield still below the edge, then they also form a preliminary shelf. All pieces must be smoothed with the file and the proportions of all the parts must be defined. In order not to avoid errors in the latter case, the artisan has either a brass or iron model continually in sight and{Page 12}he holds the work against this model. This latter point is the more important since the surgeon has already measured off the amount that each part of the instrument should have if one wants to insure its proper operation. In addition, the instrument maker first uses the rough files and finally, the smooth files as does the locksmith. At last, a hole will be drilled through the shield of the blade with a bit [Figure I] in order to join the knife and the handle with a rivet.C. The files would only remove a small amount of metal and the artisan would lose time and effort if he hardened the instruments before the finishing with these tools. It is therefore much more convenient that they receive their form completely from the file beforehand. The instrument maker hardens all instruments that must cut and be rigid and the blade of knives as well. On the other hand, those instruments that must be flexible receive no hardening. The instruments that he wants to harden, he allows to become red hot and quenches it in cold water, but he must define the degree of heat more closely that way, so he places them anew on the glowing coals. Steel and iron take on a straw color first in the heat, then a red, blue, ash gray, and finally the color of the glowing coals. Soft steel one allows to become straw colored{Page 13}in the heat, on the other hand, the hard steel must run blue and in both cases he will place them into cold water again. From this it is mainly shown that the steel will be softer, if one lets it run blue and it is therefore within the power of the artisan to give an instrument a strong or soft hardness. The knife blades must be hard and therefore only run to straw color.D. The grindstone forms everything else out that the file has worked out beforehand. On the grindstone, one works only the instruments that have been hardened and, with the remaining one, uses a different means in order to give them a finish and polish that also will be described below. Moreover, the artisan can only grind smooth surfaces and facettes with sharp edges, but he must smooth round surfaces with another material. Many opportunities to speak of this will present themselves in the following text also. The universal laws of grinding, have already been set forth in the foregoing section (Volume 6 Page 191) and there is nothing more to mention here except that the surgical instrument maker grinds the surfaces of a knife smooth and, in doing this, observes the greatest precision. Of the polishing, the important points have also been presented in the former section. The roughest marks that the grind stone leaves are taken off by the copper polishing disk and the instrument receives the brilliant polish finally{Page 14}on the wooden disks. The size of the disks must be graduated in accordance to the size of the grind stones with which the surface is smoothed. The face of both types of polishing disks will be covered by emery and olive oil. If a worker wants to bring out the best polish, then he sprinkles it finally with rouge or crocus martis. The latter metallic earth, one uses only for very fine instruments, however, such as the iron of the fleam.E. Finally the handles [ad] of the knife will be made. The different materials out of which handles and hafts will be cut have already been named above. They will also be worked basically in one and the same manner. Normally the "Bistouris" receive a tortoise shell handle. The artisan has on hand patterns of handles in rather considerable number and, from among these, he chooses the one that fits the best for each knife. Following the outline of the pattern, he sketchs with a pencil two handles on the above-mentioned tortoise shell tablet and cuts them out with a saw [Figure V]. He rounds each handle off on the outer side a bit with a file, drills holes through at [e] and [g] with the bit [Figure IV], and gives it a slot at [a] with a knife. The inner surfaces of the handle must be hollowed out on a small grindstone particularly because one{Page 15}can press the blade through the hole handle rather than through the joint up to [ad]. The handle receives its polish on the polishing disks that are covered in leather. One coats the leather with tripoli and olive oil, and the handle receives its final finish in a short time. Finally both handles and the blade will be united at teh same time by two rivets. The rivets are cut from a roll of iron wire and there is no more difficulty in this other than that, for a few, one makes rosettes at [e] and [d] and this must be illustrated still. One cuts these out of brass or silver sheet on a lead plate with the rosette die [Figure VII] and gives them the chased designs of a rose at the same time in this way. They are placed on both ends of the rivet and rivetted on with the hammer. If the handle is made out of whale bone, then the instrument maker cuts a straight piece from which both halves of the handle can be manufactured, and splits it apart along its length into two equal sized pieces just so that the lower half hangs a bit from the other. Over the remaining piece, he directs a narrow flat file into the gap, makes a broad shelf, and guides the file into the gap a few times back and forth so that it becomes a bit broader and smoother. Otherwise, he handles the whale bone like tortoise shell. This also applies to ivory and bone. The plate for a handle is cut beforehand{Page 16}from a bone with a strong saw. The ebony will be cut to measure with a knife following a pattern, ground with pumice, and finally polished on the polishing disk with tripoli like the former handle. Knives and all similar instruments receive a grade by the grinding and this must be taken off finally on the stripping stone. There are black and brown stripping stones. The stone will be coated with olive oil and the knife will merely be whet by hand.Note: A few "Bistouris" receive a small knob on the point and these must just have a small blade. The knob on the point prevents the surgeon from injuring the patient to some extent if he wants to cut a channel in the flesh and it prevents him from advancing the knife further than is necessary.b) The surgeon makes small incisions with the lancet, a small edged blade between two handles that are not rivetted together below [Figure XII]. It is not necessary to analyse the manufacture of these small instruments, because it will be worked exactly as the knife is; except that the surgical instrument maker gives it a double edge that is shorter on one side though than on the other. Those lancets that are put into a brass sheath (Lancette cache'l) deserve a still closer description.{Page 17}[Figure XIII]. They have a bent blade because one uses them for incisions in the mouth. The sheath [ab] will be rolled together from sheet brass on a pattern. The lancet, itself, that is placed in the sheath and of which only the point [c] is visible in the illustration, is distinguished from the former only in that they have a curved point and a tenon [ae] that is placed in a hollow cannula [ad]. For the sake of clarity, one must notice, that every cylindrical part of an instrument is called a Cannula. Usually the lancet is hidden in the sheath [ab] and the surgeon must push the tenon [ae] up, if the point [c] of the lancet is to travel out of the sheath. At [a], a spring of steel wire is fastened on the inner tube of the cannula that is wound around the tenon [ae] and is fastened in the middle of this tenon. The spring also sits in the inner part of the cannula [ad] and is therefore only stippled in the illustration. One pushs the cannula [ad] up by means of the tenon [ae], and shoves the lancette [c] out of the sheath, thus one presses the steel spring together at [a] at the same time. If the surgeon pulls his hand back from the cannula again though, then the steel spring will wind out of itself, press the tenon [ae] back and hide the lancet in the sheath again at the same time. In manufacturing all the parts of these lancets, there are only a couple of things to mention. First, {Page 18}the surgical instrument maker must give these, and all other springs, a spring temper. He first places it red hot in cold water, coats it with tallow or olive oil and holds it over the glowing coals until the fat is completely burned. Therefore he calls this type of tempering "burning off" as well. Finally, the spring will be plunged again into cold water. Second, it will already be remembered from above, that the cylindrical surfaces cannot be smoothed on a grindstone and therefore how the cannula [ad], that is rolled up from sheet and soldered with copper, and all other cylinders and knobs, will be polished whether they are hardened or not will now be explained. One places the cannula that has been forged in the usual manner and worked out with a file between two woods that have been coated beforehand with olive oil and emery, clamps the pieces of wood upright in a vice, and turns the cannula between the two pieces of wood a few times with all his strength. If the tube has knobs or other types of moldings, then the vice presses these into the soft wood and all the points of these parts will be smoothed as well. Finally, one can rub these in just this way with rouge if they must have a fine polish. For rough pieces the artisan scrapes the cannula before the polishing with a scraper. Finally he places the tubes on the burnishing steel and burnishs them. The steel will continually be coated with soapy water. Only the{Page 19}floor of the cannula can they not polish between two pieces of wood like all other smooth surfaces. From the description of the cutler, the reader already knows that these surfaces will be smoothed for hardened metal on a grindstone, and it is therefore extended only to describe the polishing of unhardened metals. One files the surfaces with a smooth file, coats them with olive oil and rubs it with a fine whet stone that is called an oil stone free hand, afterward emerying it with emery and olive oil by means of a thin piece of wood and burnishs it with finally with the burnishing steel [Figure VI]. The reader will run into this double means of polishing in the following text again in many instances.c) In a few situations, the surgeon makes an incision with a shears also and he therefore carries a straight [Figure XIV] and curved [Figure XVI] incision shears with him. Both must be finely finished and the edges must be forged from English steel. In contrast, the plaster shears will be worked much more roughly and are just forged from Cologne steel. Otherwise the instrument maker makes both types with one and the same processes, except that he forms the incision shears much more carefully with the file and must grind and polish them more finely. The artisan names the parts, the blade [ab], the shield [bc], the shanks [cd], and the ring of the shears [de]. All these parts he works in the following order. The shanks with the ring{Page 20}[cd], he can best forge from iron because steel is too brittle and since one can make holes with the drift in the iron without danger and the hole for a ring [c] can be broadened. Therefore, for each shank, one uses a piece of iron that is three inches long, a quarter inch thick and three quarters of an inch wide, grinds a point on each end, and forges it together hot with a hammer is such a manner that both points lie over each other precisely. In the gap between the points that results from this, the artisan places a thin bar of steel, raises the heat to welding temperature, and welds the steel and iron together. The hammer draws the piece of iron into a flap for the ring [e] and into a tenon over the same for the rod [de]. A drift punch punchs out a hole in the flap [e]. Now the artisan first cuts the iron from the bar of steel, leaving enough steel remaining as is sufficient to weld the blade [ab] under the hammer. In forging the latter, the hammer must form a depression for the stop [bc] already and, behind this, it must form a shelf. The hole for the ring [e] will just be widened in the forge with a drift, and each shank will be heated up because the rest must be worked cold. The hole will be formed in the heat of the forge up to the ring that has been formed in the rough, widened on the beak iron, and straightened into an oval free hand with the hammer.{Page 21}From the former section, page 211, it is explained, that the parts of a shears must be exactly equal in size. For this reason, both forged blades will be placed on top of each other in such a manner that the smooth sides of the blade [ab] and their edges touch on each other, and that the shield [bc] and the rods [cd] and rings of both pieces fall exactly onto each other. In this position, they will be clamped in a vice in such a manner that one can define the outline of both rings and rods to an equal size with the file, and at [b] and [c], can make a file mark for the stop on the high sides of both shanks. Exactly along the latter mark the artisan finishes the stop [bc] with a flat file, so that in the matching of the stop, the shanks fall exactly onto one another. The hole in the shield [bc] for the rivet, the cutler punchs with a corer (Volume 6 page 87), drills it completely with the bit [Figure I a], gives both the shanks the position described once more on top of each other, and places a rivet through the hole that he calls a false nail. This is done because he must make the perimeter of both the blades [ab] the same size with the file. In order to know how far each blade should be ground during polishing, the surgical instrument maker gives both shanks such a position that they form an ordinary cross and makes a file mark along the cut of the one{Page 22}on the other shank. The remaining finishing with the file occurs in the following order: first, the outer sides of the blades and the backs are filed during which the vice holds the shears tightly in a hoop clamp (Volume 6 page 188) after which the cutting edge, the rods, and, finally, the outer perimeter of the rings. The inner perimeter of the latter, one works with a curved bird's tongue file (Volume 6 page 174) and the curve of the rod is worked with the half round file. Shears of this type instead of a rivet, receive a screw whose head is countersunk. Therefore the hole of such a shank into which the head is to be countersunk must be widened on the side about the depth of the head with the dressing bit [Figure II] (page 7) and at the same time the same hole will be made a bit larger with the reamer [Figure III]. In the description of the tailor's shears (Volume 6 page 210), one has already mentioned that one shank is fastened to the tenon of the rivet and the other is movable. For this reason, the hole of the shank presently receives screw threads with a tap and the hole will be widened a bit on the other shank. At this point, one places both blades in the familiar position on top of each other, in order to discover, whether the edges have a proper alignment to each other. In this operation, the blades receive a twisted arrangement at the same time (Volume 6 page 212). The shears now{Page 23}have their rough form, and therefore one can harden them. Each shank will simply be placed into cold water at a red heat up to the middle of the hole in the shield so that one can draw it to straw color on the coal again and cool it once more. If the blade has warped on the side on being hardened, then one beats it straight again with the straightening hammer (Volume 6 page 185) If it has become bent on the back then the grindstone must erase the flaw. On this stone, one smoothes first the inner surfaces of the blade, and afterward the back the shield, the facets on the outer surfaces of the blade and, finally, the edge of the outer side of the shears will be ground. The making of the screw, that unites the shanks of these shears instead of a rivet, has been presented already on page 62 of the sixth volume. In joining the parts, the artisan holds the blades of both shanks tightly in a vice by means of the "Cerciseau," files both bars and rings to the same size on the side and gives them a fine finished fashioning afterward during which, according to the nature of the situation, a wooden file clamp also holds the ring tightly. The bars and rings are polished with the smooth files, the oil stone, the emery, and the burnisher [Figure VI] as has already been illustrated above. However, before the burnishing of these parts, each blade will first be polished on the polishing disk with emery. The screw must be taken out again before the polishing however.{Page 24}One also polishes them thoroughly with rouge if the head is filed round beforehand, and they can let it blue on the coals. Finally, they join both shanks with this screw.Note: Sometimes the handle will be made of silver and, in this case, one gives the blade a tang beneath the shield. The silver handle is cast by the instrument maker, who drills a hole at [c Figure XIV] in the silver, fills it with a cement of ground colophony and chalk, heats the tang of the blade, and places it into the cement. The two metals will not be joined further.d) The most common probes [Figure XVI 1] with which the surgeon explores the wounds are iron or silver sticks with an oblong knob on each end. The iron probes are no more of a problem to manufacture other than that they are not to be hardened because they must be flexible. The silver are far better, however, because they are softer. A few probes receive , a double wood screw on one end [Figure XVI 2a] in leau of the knob, in order to wind up the "Scorpion." Screws of this type have two threads next to each other and thus a twin point as well with which one can comfortably grasp and wind up the worn linen. The screw threads can therefore simply be cut with a file. Quite a bit more skill is required for the hollowed probe [Figure XVII]. {Page 25}The groove [ab] is hollowed out and the tip [a] has the form of the forward part of a spoon. If the surgeon wants to cut through the skin over a wound, then he places the probe under the skin where the incision should occur. The tip of the lower edge of the shears rest in the channel of the probe and this shows him, not only the path, but the upright tip [a] prevents him from proceeding further than is necessary as well. Such a probe will first be forged like the former and the channel will be hollowed out with a file. The surgical instrument maker bends the probe on the vice, in order to hollow it out from one end to the other. Therefore, the probe must be thoroughly annealed beforehand. Finally, a piece will be erected on the end [a] when the metal is heated beforehand, and the superfluous material will be removed with a file. This gives the hollowed and raised tip. The handle [bc], the artisan cuts with a chisel cold and forms the artistic decoration with the file.e) With the normal plaster spatula [Figure XVIII] the surgical plaster and salves are spread. There is nothing in its manufacture further to mention other than that it will be hardened because it must be stiff and that one grinds it because they have a few edged facettes. A few spatulas have on their end an sharply angled slot and these are called {Page 26}mouth spatulas, because the doctor grips the skin under the tongue in this slot when he wants to loosen the tongue of a child. More elaborate is the tweezer spatula [Figure XIX ab] which consists of the broad iron of a spatula and [bc, bd] two jaws of a tweezer. The surgical instrument maker forges a jaw [bc, bd] on each end of a piece of iron and leaves a broad piece in the middle for the spatula. He places the iron together at [a] in the middle, joins the two pieces that lie over each other at [ab] by welding and forms them into a spatula. The two jaws will not be hardened because they must be flexible but the surgical instrument maker makes heats them only to red heat instead after the forging and forges them with a wet hammer until they are cold. One polishes the instrument by the second method of polishing. (Page 19.)f) The tongs [Figure XX], with which the plaster will be removed from a wound simply have an artificial joint at [b], like an ordinary tongs. The thin part of the joint [b] in the middle of the male shank [ae] is placed into a hole [b] of the female shank [dc] and both will be joined more precisely by a rivet. The reason for this joining is so that the shank can be held together completely immovable. The male shank receives an indentation on both sides at [b] from the file and in the female shank, {Page 27}a slot will be made on the same place with a chisel that will be opened by a drift into a round hole. The surgical instrument maker brings the latter shank [dc] to a red heat, places the male shank through the hole of the shank [dc] in such a manner that the slot in the middle of the first shank comes to lie in the hole of the latter, and drives the round hole into the slot of the shank [ac] with the hammer. He must have already measured off all the parts of the shanks beforehand, however, as with the shears so that they are equal in size and he must adjust them with the file. One will easily realize that the tongs are hardened and polished in the second manner described above. On the inner surfaces of each point [ac] a few teeth are cut with the file so that the tongs hold the plaster more securely.g) Finally the surgeon also carries a box of lapis infernalis (silver nitrate) with him. The most durable are made of silver, and are fire gilded internally, because the lapis infernalis easily eats through the iron. The present function makes them begin with iron. The complete box of this type is put together from three parts; from a middle piece [Figure XXI ab] with a small brass tube [ac], the cover [cd], and a hollow tip [bf] that is screwed onto [ba] and locked at [f] with a small screw.{Page 28}The surgeon keeps lapis infernalis in both the small tube [ac] as will as in the top [bf]. The middle piece [ab] will be forged solid, and receives a tenon at [a] and [b], to which one gives screw threads with a die in order to attach the cover [ced] and the top piece [ef]. In the axis of the tenon [a], a hole will be drilled and, into this, the tube [ac] is fastened. This, one rolls from two equal sized pieces of brass sheet that are not joined together other than that the sheets are beaten over each other. The reader recalls this from the brass sheath in which one fastened a pencil so that he will easily have an understanding of this tube. Then, on the tube, a brass ring that presses the sheets together is also placed as on all such things. The surgical instrument maker drills a hole along the circumference of the tube through a piece of brass and, from this, files the small ring [g]. Finally he places the tube [ac] in the hole [a] and presses an iron stopper in the tube up to the floor. By this means, the tube will be completely rounded and fastened at the same time. The middle piece [cd] will be forged solid. However, one hollows it out at [d] with a bit along the length of the box [ac]. The tap gives the opening [e] a female screw thread internally so that one can screw the middle piece on the tenon, and a tenon at [d] receives screw threads with the same instrument in order to fasten it into the opening of the top piece [bf]{Page 29}that also receives a screw thread. The top piece [bf], the surgical instrument maker rolls together from a forged sheet on a mandrel and brazes it with copper. Into the opening [b], he cuts screw threads and makes a small screw, that fits into the screw threads mentioned previously. At [h], a small piece of steel will be brazed on with copper to which the file gives teeth. The surgeon scratchs with his finger over these teeth if he wants to sprinkle lapis infernalis from the box [bf]. The instrument will be polished between two pieces of wood with emery in the method described above and finally burnished.B. The instruments that are used in the anatomical dissection of the parts of a cadaver, like the small mathematical instruments, lie together in a case. Indeed, the names of all these pieces should be given, however, one will not linger over the pieces whose manufacture has already been elucidated in the foregoing text.a) First one notices in this case of instruments, five scalpels, knives that are fastened to a handle. With the strongest of these scalpels, one cuts the cartilage (culter cartilaginis) [Figure XXII]. The blade [ab] resembles a four sided pyramid or, to speak more plainly, they have and raised edge on each broad side. {Page 30}From this a double edge naturally results that is longer, however, on one side than on the other. Below the edge is a shoulder [bc] and this extends through the entire handle [cd]. There is nothing more to remark upon about the manufacture of this knife other than that, on both sides of the flat tang [cd], a plate of ivory lies and both are joined to the iron by rivets. The handles of the remaining scalpels are fashioned in exactly the same manner. These resemble strong spring knives [Figure XXIII] and the blade is ground out hollow. They are of different sizes and have either an edge on one side or they are double edged like the lancets. The handle also is solid sometimes and the tang will then be set in with a cement of colophony and chalk. (Page 24.)b) The tweezers with which the anatomist holds the part that he is cutting, resemble the grain tweezers of the goldsmith or the spatula tweezers [Figure XIX] except that they do not have the spatula [ab] at the rear but are welded together a little bit instead. They will also be forged and finished in the same manner as the spatula tweezers.c) The HAMULUS [Figure XXIV] is a steel wire with a hook [a] and a short handle [b] of ivory. It will be forged and hardened in the usual manner. The double HAMULUS [Figure XXV] is entirely of steel and has two pointed hooks on each end. {Page 31}The surgical instrument maker forges a flat piece of steel corresponding to the necessary size, and cuts a narrow piece with a chisel at each end so that on both sides of the slot a strip remains. From these, he files the hooks, bends them heated, and hardens the instrument. With the normal HAMULUS, the anatomist holds the bowels out of the cadaver, and with the double one, he picks up two pieces of flesh at the same time in situations that require it.d) The TUBULUS [Figure XXVI] is a small tube of sheet brass with which the bowels will be inflated. It consists of a tube [ab] and a mouth piece [bc] that is simply slid onto the tube. The tubes will be rolled together on a TUBULUS mandrel, and in the mouthpiece, one places a flexible piece of wood when one wants to bend it.e) The bent stitching needle [Figure XXVIII] is used by the anatomist if he wants to reunite pieces again. They consist of a head [ab] with a slot on each side through which the needle eye passes, a body [cb] that is thicker than the head so that room is created for the thread and the head, and a triangular tip [cd]. Two edges of the tip must have a single arrangement with the gap of the head. The needle will be forged from steel and hardened. There is thus nothing further to mention except for the manufacture of the {Page 32}eye. The artisan heats the forged needle before hardening it, bends the head first on one and then on the other side and gives the needle a slot with a fine file in the bend in both cases. By this means, a small opening soon results in the middle which just needs to be widened into an eye yet by a small rectangular drift. In use, the anatomist holds the needle with a needle holder which is just like the tube [Figure XXI ac]. The pipe is just fastened at the bottom on a button.f) For the inspection of a corpse, one uses a saw and an ELAVATORIUM when the skull must be cut. The most important points regarding the latter will be explained in the following text and it is therefore only necessary to describe the manufacture of the saw [Figure V]. The iron frame [abc] will usually be forged from steel, bent with a hammer on the anvil, and decoratively finished with the files. In forging, a piece of iron remains at [a] by means of a addition made at the edge of the anvil out of which the tang in its wooden handle will be formed. At [d] and [c], the hammer forges a strong rectangular piece through which a perpendicular hole will be drilled in order to fasten in the blade of the saw [dc]. This will be manufactured from an English clock spring with exactly the same processes that have already been explained in Volume 6 on page 32 and they will{Page 33}also be hardened in the same manner as the saws of the locksmith. (Volume 6 page 32.) At [c], the artisan simply fastens the saw with a rivet, but at [d] he forges a steel tang on the saw that he forms into a screw with a screw cutting die. This will be placed through the hole of the frame at [a] and the blade is held tightly in the bow with a brass wing nut. The actual purpose of the screw though is that the blade can thus be pulled slack or tight according to the nature of the situation.C. In accordance with the promises given, a few pieces further that will only be needed for individual situations shall reveal more closely the art of the surgical instrument maker.a) With the bullet extractor [Figure XXVII], the surgeon takes the bullet out of the wound and, in their manufacture, a few special processes are encountered. The frame [ab] will be forged from the whole, thus, in order that the parts [ac] and [db] project a bit more strongly from the rest, which one easily accomplishs in the forging by means of the set hammer. (Volume 6 page 27). The opening of this part, like the opening of the grip [ef], will be cut out with a chisel and finished with the file. The tube [gh], the artisan rolls together on a mandrel from sheet, and solders it together with copper. At [g], he drills a hole corresponding to the thickness of the tube in the frame [ab] and likewise solders the tube into this with copper. {Page 34}The opposite opening of the tube receives the valve [db] at [i], a hole with screw threads into which a screw [kl] can be turned. The forged spindle [kl] simply receives its screw threads with a die. The most difficult part of the manufacture of the screw is that they must be hollowed out through their entire centerline with a drill since a spring [ml] passes through the hollow screw and through the tube [gh]. The surgical instrument maker forges a flat sheet of steel for the spring, cuts the end [ml] into two equal sized strips, bends these a bit, and rolls the heated sheet together with the hammer. Through the other end [l], a hole will be drilled and finally one gives this part a spring temper that has already been described on page 18. The spring will be fastened under the screw [kl] with a rod [l]. One moves the screw [kl] off with this as well so that it pulls the spring [ml] back also and presses the arms together at [m]. One can thus place the spring comfortabley into the wound. One twists the screw up, thus opening the arms [m] gradually until one grips the bullet in the wound. The arrangement of the instrument shows that the spring [ml] will certainly be pulled back and forth by the screw but they move, not in a circle in this action, since they are joined together merely by means of a rod [l]. The turning of the spring in the wound would increase the patients pain.{Page 35}b) If the surgeon wants to hold back the flow of the blood from a limb, then he presses the blood vessels together with a tourniquet over the limb. They now prefer to use those which were invented some time ago by the Englishman Freeck, and which has been gradually improved. [Figure XXIX] presents the tourniquet from the one side of the case and [Figure XXX] presents it from the other side. The case will consist of a floor sheet [bc], and two side sheets [ad, ba] made of sheet brass, put together by a tenon and a mortise and soldered with spelter solder. The axle [fg], forged from solid steel rests in the side sheets on tenons at [f] and [g] that protrude somewhat however. The chisel makes a long slot at [h] through their axes and the file widens it so that one can place a strap through. On the tenon [Figure XXX g], a cog wheel is placed with sharp teeth into which a screw [gh] is fastened as an endless screw usually is. The surgical instrument maker possesses no protractor and instead he uses a chisel that has two small edges next to each other between which is a slot that is as broad as the distance ought to be between two teeth. On the steel plate, out of which he will cut the cog wheel, he makes parallel circles beforehand, and tests with his chisel until he finds a circle that he can divide with the foot of the chisel
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{Page 36}without some being left over. The wheel will be cut with the chisel along its circumference and the teeth whose number are arbitrary will be cut out with the file. For the screw [ik] also, he has no screw cutting die, and the screw threads must therefore be cut out with the file beforehand. At [k], the surgical instrument maker rivets on a small piece of brass, out of which a pan will be hollowed out on top. The screw will be moved by means of a small handle at [h]. The endless screw conceals a small frame [Figure XXXI] that is soldered together from brass sheet and is fastened to the case by two small screws. The tenon [Figure XXIX f] carries a brass ratchet wheel on the outer side of the sheet [ad]. The artisan cuts it from thick brass sheet and separates the teeth in the manner described above. A spring [Figure XXIX lm] catches the teeth. It is given spring temper after the forging and will be fastened with a small screw into the side sheet at [n]. Against this, another spring [no] presses that is bent angularly and likewise fastened by a screw at [o]. One lets these springs run blue for decoration and, for this operation, they are thoroughly polished. The springs lie on the coals until they become blue and then are placed into the sand. The blue color will be more complete though if one lays them on hot sand instead of the coals. If the surgeon {Page 37}would, for example, like to stop the flow of blood to the hand, then he places the tourniquet on the arm, places a strap through the slot [Figure XXIX h] of the axle, binds it together under the arm and moves the screw [ik] by its handle. The strap winds around the axle [fg] and draws the blood vessels together. One can simply pull back the spring [hm] of the ratchet wheel, and the handle runs turning around so that it rolls up the band once again. In order that the movement goes easily, there are two small brass bearings [cb] applied at [o] in the side sheets on which the strap rests.c) The trepanning tool is among the surgical instruments with which everyone is familiar; at least with the name and for this reason it will also assume its place here. One will deal with the trepanning tool itself principally and only touch upon the associated instruments briefly. Its parts are a frame [Figure XXXII abc] and the crown [ad]. The frame again has two parts [ab, ac]. Each part the surgical instrument maker forges from a bar of steel, gives it a decorative bending with the hammer and leaves a thick rectangular piece at [a] and [c]. The file gives each piece elaborated knobs and other decorations. On the pieces [cb], he files a tenon at [b] and gives it screw threads with a screw cutting die. With the same instrument, the base surface [b] of the part [ba] receives a{Page 38}female screw in order to join both parts. The purpose of this juncture is to place a movable wooden knob [b] on the tenon on which the surgeon moves the frame during the operation. Beneath [c] likewise is a wooden movable knob fastened on a tang. Finally a hole will be drilled perpendicularly through the rectangular piece [a], and widened rectangularly with a drift. Its polish, the frame receives from the oilstone, with emery and the burnishing steel as has already been illustrated above. (Page 19). The crown of the trepanning tool [de] is an abbreviated hollow cone on a handle. Its side surfaces have between two and twenty four sharp slots and a tooth stand on each above at [d] like the teeth of a saw. The latter cut the skull and the slots on the sides widen the hole. It is familiar enough that one makes an opening in the skull with the trepanning tool if one wants, for example, to remove the clotted blood that has settled on the brain as a result of a blow or a fall. The surgical instrument makers of the past manufactured the crown of the trepanning tool from two pieces, the hollow abbreviated cone [de] itself and the base at [e] on the handle [ea]. The base would then be soldered on. The purpose of this assembly was that the actual crown [ed] could be hollowed out more comfortably. The present surgical instrument maker forges both parts though from the best {Page 39}English steel in one piece. They get the handle [a] easily by means of a few added pieces made on the edge of the anvil, and the end itself will be drawn out under the hammer into a small rectangular tenon in order to fasten the crown into the rectangular hole [a] of the frame. For this reason, there is a small screw on the side of this hole at [a]. The file gives the actual crown its smoothness and rounding and gives the handle a few decorative knobs. Usually the surgical instrument maker now delivers the crown to the turner in order to have them hollow it out. This artisan drills a hole at [d] through the axis of the crown on his lathe, and widens it conically with a turning chisel. The surgical instrument maker then gives the outer side surfaces [de] about 24 slots that stand obliquely on the base [e] with a triangular file. Each slot, he works triangulary from which the 24 triangular cutting edges result that receive an edge with the same instrument. It is self-explanatory that one must divide the circumference [e] and [d] beforehand with a compass into as many equal parts as the number of slots that the surface is to have. On each of these cuts, a tooth will be cut with the file that, like their edges, has an oblique orientation from left to right. The teeth are triangular and pointed. On the base of the hollowed out part at [e], a hole with screw threads will be drilled in the axis in order to screw {Page 40}in a small triangular point or pyramid [Figure XXXIII]. This projects a few marks beyond the teeth [d] because they must give the trepanning tool its initial grasp on the skull. It will be forged in the usual manner and receives a screw [a] below. The artisan hardens the crown only a little so that the teeth do not break out during use; the pyramid is a bit stronger however. The reader will still recall from the text above that steel becomes softer if it is allowed to run blue, in constrast remaining harder if it is taken from the coals at a straw color and, from this, one obtains the two hardnesses of both pieces of the crown. However, as soon as the teeth have already cut in a bit during the trepanning, and the trepanning tool has a grip then the pyramid [Figure XXXIII] is screwed off again. One uses a key [Figure XXXIV] for this, that has a hole at [a] following the form of the pyramid's hole. The forging of this key, as the forming of the handle and shank can be explained in the text above and therefore there just remains to be mentioned that the opening in the axis of the key is drilled first and afterward will be widened with a rectangular tapered drift corresponding to the thickness of the pyramid.The remaining instruments that one needs for this operation should be touched upon only briefly. Before the trepanning 1) the surgeon exposes the place that he wants to {Page 41}trepan with a razor [Figure XXXV]; a steel plate [cd] that has a round or rectangular perimeter with which one can shave the skin is screwed onto a handle [ab]. The plate [cd] will therefore be ground to shape on all sides when it is hardened, like the blade of a knife. 2) The PERFORATIV [Figure XXXVI] pre-drills the hole in the skull into which the pyramid will be set and, during use, its tenon [a] will be fastened to a frame like the crown of the trepanning tool. The edge [de] is a rectangular pyramid with a sharp point. The manufacture of this instrument can easily be assumed from the foregoing text. 3) With the TIREFOND or floor lifter [Figure XXXVII] the surgeon tests whether the disk of the skull that the trepanning tool cuts out can be moved and thus whether the bone has been cut through. The double wood screw [ab] whose manufacture has already been illustrated above, has two points at the end with which one grips the disk by the hole that the PERFORATIV has drilled and tries to lift it. 4) CULTER LENTICULARIS [Figure XXXVIII], a knife that takes its name from the lenticular knob on its point. The trepanning tool leaves a bevel on the lower circumference of the drilled out hole and this will be cut away with the knife mentioned. In order to avoid injuring the brain, the surgeon directs the knob inwardly against the skull while cutting and the surface of the blade must be ground somewhat round {Page 42}so that it fits against the round drilled out hole comfortably. Except for the knob [a] that will be formed from a left over piece of iron by the file, the artisan manufactures this instrument like all other knives. 5) One can just as easily guess from [Figure XXXIX], the method of manufacture the retractor HEBEISEN (Elevatorium) with which a circular spot of the skull will be lifted up and bent back again. 6) With the lenticular knob of the MENINGOPHYIAX whose form and manufacture one can easily perceive from [Figure XL], the surgeon pulls back the dura mater of the brain.d) Among the most familiar instruments of the German surgeon, one must also count the vein spout SCHNEPPER. The inner parts will be surrounded by a case that is assembled from sheet brass and that a slide closes. A screw [a] holds the vein lancet ADERLASEISEN tightly onto the floor of the case. The artisan forges it from the best English steel, finishes the edge [b] finely, grinds it, and polishs it with crocus martis. A spring [cd] which the artisan gives spring temper like all other springs of the vein spout is also screwed onto the side sheet of the case with a screw and lifts the vein lancet again in the situation when it is necessary. A strong iron [ef] presses on the latter lancet that is fastened at [e] with a few {Page 43}screws and has a catch outside the case at [f]. The surgeon lifts on this catch of the iron [ef] that has a right angled catch at [f] that cannot be seen in the illustration however because it lies under [f]. Among these parts, a retainer is fastened on the outside of the floor [gh] that [Figure XLIII] is shown separately in cross section since it cannot be seen in the former illustration. The iron retainer [il] is fastened movably by a rivet at [k] between two rivetted flaps. If one presses it in at [i], then it lifts the spring [lk] again. At [l], it has a tenon that fits into the hole of the floor [Figure XLI m]. Thus when the surgeon presses the iron [il] at [i] so that the tenon releases the hole [m], then he can raise the iron [Figure XLI ef] up to [m]. If he presses it back at [i] with his finger again, then the tenon [Figure XLIII l] will drive back into the hole [m] by means of the spring [ik] and hold the iron [Figure XLI ef]. If he presses [il] down at [i] though, then he pulls the tenon [m] back again. The iron [fe] works on the vein lancet [ab] and the latter strikes a wound when it is properly aimed.e) More ingenious is the bleeding spout SCHROEPFSCHNEPPER that closes this section. The case of this instrument resembles a hollow cube, and is assembled from sheet brass with which one cannot {Page 44}support it, however. Each floor holds two side sheets [Figure XLIV and XLV] and the latter will be pushed into a rabbet of the former when the parts are assembled. In the one half of the housing [Figure XLIV] the mechanism opens and in the cover sheet [Figure XLV ab] the holes are cut through which the small bleeding lancets strike. The iron beam [Figure XLIV, XLVI cd] moves on its tenons in the side sheets of the case and presses on one end on a wheel [Figure XLIV ef] or, more precisely, a slot on a cog wheel that ends beneath at a catch [f]. [Figure XLVII] makes the form of the wheel comprehensible and the catch mentioned is at [f]. The wheel will be cut from a forged sheet with a chisel and the frame [Figure XLVII eg] will be measured off with a compass. Only for one reason that will be given below, one divides the frame [eg] again into three or four parts and deepens the frame [hk] with a chisel approximately a quarter of an inch. Each third of the frame [eg], the artisan divides again into five parts and gives each third, five teeth with a file. Beneath the beam [Figure XLIV cd], a tenon is rivetted into the wheel [a] that rests on a broad and bent spring [lmn]. In [Figure XLIV] the spring lies with the tenon behind, in [Figure XLVI], however, it is in front of the beam [cd]. The spring will be forged from steel with the hammer and bent,{Page 45}given spring temper, and simply pushed between the wheel and the side sheet of the case. To each third of the bow [Figure XLVIII eh] belongs an axle [op]. One will only notice a single such axle in [Figure XLVIII]. Their tenons on each end rest on both brass side sheets of the case and at [o] there is a half gear that has four teeth that grip into the teeth of the wheel [ef]. The axle is nothing more than a square rod that one gives a tenon on each end by forging, and at [o] leaves a strong piece remaining out of which the half gear with its five teeth will be filed. Next to the tenon [p], a short screw will be fashioned at [q] with a die. Both the outer axles have five bleeding blades [r,s,t,u,v,] but the middle one has six. One such blade is only about a quarter inch long and its point runs together coming to a sharp point. The surgical instrument maker forges a narrow and thin bar of English steel for all the bleeding blades of the scarificator, cuts a quadrangular piece with the sheet shears from the bar according to the length of such a blade, into which he has beforehand pierced a rectangular hole with a drift on one end corresponding to the thickness of the axle that one will notice at [w] also. He further rolls a thin brass sheet around the axle [op], takes it away again, however, and forges it into a tube as long {Page 46}as the gap between two bleeding blades [or,rs,st,tu,uv,vq]. The small tubes will preferably be made a little longer in order to measure off the gap of the bleeding blades according to the holes in the cover [Figure XLV ab] and the excess, the file takes off when it is necessary. The artisan now places one such hollow rectangular sheet [Figure XLVIII or] on the axle [op], behind this, a bleeding lancet [r], and in this manner he lets the brass sheets and bleeding lancets alternate continually. Finally, all these small parts will be pressed together with a small screw [q]. Now the axles will be clamped in the vice and a few file marks are given to all the lancets like a pointed cutting edge. They will afterward be taken out again, hardened, and ground and polished like the vein lancet. These are the parts that appear in the side of the open scarificator [Figure XLVI]. The reader might turn the instrument over in his mind so that the parts are visible that are portrayed in [Figure XLIV]. However, [ef] is the wheel and [cd] is the cross beam. On the floor of the box is a thin iron in front of the grip [f] fastened moveably with a screw at [x] and, against this iron, a spring presses at front. If one thus moves the grip [f] of the wheel [ef] against the iron [xy] then the slot of the ANGRIFF [Figure XLVII z]{Page 47}is pressed on the iron [xy] and this presses against the wheel [ef] by means of a spring by which means the wheel is held tight. The wheel receives a slanting position, by which the axle [op] at the same time will turn and the points of the bleeding lancets that before stood raised, drop. As soon as one presses back the iron [xy] at [y], though, the spring [Figure XLVIII lmn] which before had pressed down on the inner corner at [l] a bit by the tenon, presses the wheel [ef] back by means of the tenon into its perpendicular position. The axle [op] will thus likewise turn around again by means of the gear [o] and the lancets will again be raised so that they strike a wound. But were the bow [Figure XLVIII eg] not depressed at [hk], then naturally the middle axle would strike deeper. So that the surgeon can also produce a deep or shallow wound, an iron arm [AB] is fastened at [C] on a screw that penetrates the floor on the bottom of the case [Figure XLV, XLVI]. This will be held tightly at [D] by a wing nut with which one can raise or lower the arm at the same time. The arm has a small round flap on each side of the case that is only visible at [AB] in the illustration. At each flap is a nut and by these, {Page 48}the cover will be joined with the arm by the aid of two screws [E, F]. If one moves the wing nut [Figure XLIV C] upwards then the arm [AB] will lower the cover that is joined to it at the same time. If one turns the screw [C] down then the opposite occurs. In the first case the lancets will project a little; in the latter, they project more so from the holes of the cover [Figure XLV ab]. [Figure XLIX] presents the arm separately in cross section and will make all of this comprehensible.V. The instrument maker and cutler are in the view of the guild completely synonymous with each other, and what applies to one profession applies to the other. Without a premium, the apprentices study this profession five years. They only have to endure this three years if they can provide an apprenticeship fee. On the three years of travelling, their journeymen receive free provision for a few days in a strange city and a freely given gift. Both pay the remaining journeymen. For a masterpiece, they manufacture a pair of decorated finished table knives, a bacon knife and a tailor's shears. The blade of the bacon knife is long and narrow and the cutler gives it spring temper.
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TRADES AND ARTS Copyright: Harold B. Gill, III; 1992.P. N. SprengelHandwerke und Kuenste(Trades and Arts)Volume 8 {Page 285}Section 6"Der Mechanicus" ("The Scientific Instrument Maker")Contents.It has long been the custom to call those artisans who manufacture mathematical and physical instruments "Mechanicians" in spite of the word actually having a broader definition. The mathematician and particularly the scientist investigate all the realms of nature in their experiments. Therefore, in an artisan who makes all the requisite instruments for them, not only must the skill of all metalworkers be united, but he also must be able to work in wood, glass, and other materials as well. If need be, each scientific instrument maker certainly can make all the instruments that the surveyor and scientist could want from him. Meanwhile a skilled scientific instrument maker tends to choose the manufacture of a certain type of instrument especially for his work in order to acquire a superior skillfulness therein. Therefore, a few principally occupy themselves with mathematical instruments; others, with instruments for physics, and others specialize in glass grinding.{Page 286}Space does not permit the illustration of the manufacture of all mathematical instruments especially since one analyses their parts with fewer familiar instruments and their uses must be included. This makes it necessary to keep to just those instruments whose familiarity and purpose one can assume for the most part. MANUFACTURE OF THE MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTSI. Instruments with which one drawsmathematical illustrations on paper.The most useful instrument of this type are as follows: The drawing compass along with its feet, the hand compass, the hair compass, the bow compass, a compass whose feet stand perpendicular at a 90 degree angle on each opening, the spring compass, the simple and double calipers, the trammel along with its tips, the reduction compass, the proportional compass, an instrument with which ellipses can be drawn, three and four legged compasses, the drawing pen, the dotting wheel, the protractor with and without a movable ruler, the rectilinial protractor, the ruler on which there are one or more scales, the parallel rule, the triangle, the iron rule, a ruler on which a second rule{Page 287}stand perpendicularly, a ruler with a half protractor and a movable ruler, a paint box, a pencil stick, special scales and a caliber gauge. Of these instruments, only the manufacture of those that one tends to purchase together in a case of instruments will be analyzed. The following pieces belong in it:1) The drawing compass [Plate VII. Figure I.] justifiably stands at the head of these pieces due to its manifold uses and due also to the precision with which the artisan must manufacture it. The first attribute of a serviceable compass is that its legs must not wobble. To this end, one not only makes the joint as long as possible but also the hole in the head [a] must be drilled out precisely in the center. Therefore, if one opens a finished compass completely, then the rivet in this head must stand the same distance from the circumference of the head at all points. Second, the two legs of a compass must close precisely onto each other. Therefore, if one opens the compass in such a manner that both legs come to lie in a straight line, then a ruler must fit precisely onto both legs. Third, both of the steel tips of the compass must be very fine but not to thinly sharpened, if they are not to pierce too deeply into the paper and they must be particularly well hardened as well. Finally, if a compass is too heavy, its own weight also penetrates{Page 288}too deeply into the paper. Therefore, the instrument maker finishes it to this end as well as he can, not to mention, that it receives an attractive appearance from this.The upper part of each leg, [ab] and [ac], are made of brass, but the tips [bd] and [ce] are made of steel. The entire length of each leg of a large drawing compass amounts to six and a half inches. The artisan has each brass part of a leg cast from a pattern in sand by a founder. There are artisans in large cities that occupy themselves with nothing other than casting metal from patterns provided by the other professionals and artisans. The brass parts mentioned receive their form in the rough already from the casting. The instrument maker never deals with the forging iron and steel, but instead, he usually turns this work over to a locksmith and he merely finishes the forged pieces with the file. This also applies to the steel feet, [bd] and [ce]. He first joins both the feet just mentioned with the brass. He gives the fixed foot [ce] a flat tang while finishing it with the file, and precisely in the middle of the bottom surface [c] of the brass half [ac], he saws a slot along the length into which the flat tang of the foot [ce] will be fit with the file. In this and all similar situations he uses a saw whose blade is made from a good watch spring. The flat tang of the foot [ce] will be soldered with good hard solder into the slot of the brass on the hot coals. In addition to this fixed foot, on the drawing compass, the leg [ad] receives a foot [bd] that one can remove. The foot [bd] therefore does not receive a flat tang, but instead, is given a square tang that the artisan forms with the file along with the entire foot. On the bottom surface [b] of the brass half [ab], he finds the centerpoint with a compass and drills a hole at this point into the brass along the length which he widens into a square with a punch that is exactly as large as the tang of the foot [bd]. The metal tends to split apart during this operation however, if the artisan has not filed the round hole out into a square shape somewhat beforehand with a fine file. The tenon of the steel foot must fit into the hole in such a manner, however, that the foot sits completely motionless in the hole already without its adjusting screw. The adjusting screw holds it somewhat more tightly, however, it sometimes tends to rock. The attribute of the compass mentioned above; that its legs not wobble during use, necessitates that the artisan beat the brass on an anvil until it is compact as possible. He must first solder the foot [ce] in because the brass will be laid on the coals during soldering which will soften it again.{Page 290}
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{Page 291}as spring steel. Exactly in the middle of the large slot in the cheek [af], he saws in at [f] with a fine saw and gives the sawed out slot a sharply angled form on its base with the saw. This slot must hold the steel middle sheet and therefore it must have a sharp angle filed into its lower end and it is not fastened further. Therefore one also gives it the angled slot mentioned on its narrow lowest end so that it does not wobble. The steel middle sheet now described falls into a slot of the cheek [ag] during the assembly of the compass, as has been said. The artisan therefore divides this cheek along its width into two equal parts, holds half the width with the tip of the compass, and drives down on all sides of the face of the cheek with the compass. Along the lines that he describes with the compass, he cuts into the cheek along its length with the saw. Since the slot must not only run generally parallel with both the side surfaces of the cheek [ab] but with both halves that result from the slot as well, it must be the same size also if the joint is to be precise. The artisan clamps both legs together in a vice in order to see whether they fit precisely into each other in the closure [f] and [g]. He corrects errors{Page 292}in this operation, which he strikes with a hammer on the head [a] and, by this means, the surfaces of the closure are driven onto each other. The instrument maker now tests the middle point of the head [a] with a compass, clamps both legs together once more in a vice and drills a hole through the established centerpoint into which the rivet of the compass is placed. The newer artisans give the compass a conical rivet which is fastened in the hole by means of a brass plate on each end. On each side of the head, a plate closes, and one will be soldered together with the rivet. The other, however, will just be screwed onto the rivet. This newly invented arrangement of the compass provides the comfort that one requires; aided by the screw of the legs, it can be made to be difficult or easy to open. The movable plate therefore receives two slots in which one places the foot of a key [Figure III] if one wants to move the plate. From the conical form of the rivet, the artisan achieves the purpose so that the rivet can be easily fastened again if it runs out of the hole and the legs begin to wobble. In this case, he takes just enough off with the file from the fastened plate by which means the rivet will be stronger on this end and will fit again into its hole. Naturally, the hole into which the rivet will be placed must also be drilled out conically. If it is bored out round{Page 293}then it is freshly widened conically with a reamer [Figure IV]. The rivet itself is made of steel wire and will be tenoned into the immovable plate on one end, as said. On the other end it receives screw threads from the screw cutting die onto which the nut of the movable plate fits. Both plates will be turned on a lathe from a piece of sheet brass. One will take the opportunity to speak of this machine and its use extensively in the text below. The artisan cuts the nut of the movable plate with the screw tap of the screw cutting kit and this also applies to the nut [Figure I b] and its small adjusting screw. The latter screw will otherwise be formed free hand with the file. Nothing else remains to be done other than to finish the compass artfully with the file and polish it. The outer brass side surfaces [abd] and [ace] will be filed to the straight edge once more and afterward polished. These pieces of brass run together like a wedge to a point and, for a pleasing appearance, it is provided that a certain proportion exists in this tapering thickness of the compass. The instrument maker therefore measures the thickness of the compass with a caliber gauge [Figure V]. Such a gauge made of sheet metal has three notches on each side and with the three notches on one side the artisan measures the thickness of the drawing compass,{Page 294}but with those notches on the other side, he measures the thickness of the hand compass. The compass must be as broad as the widest notch at the head [Figure I a]; at the junctures [b] and [c] of the brass and steel, as broad as the narrowest notch; and finally the medium notch will be used to measure the middle of the brass half of the compass. The instrument maker applies the most decoration to the compass on the broad sides. Only this much can be said regarding this; namely, that the compass is fashioned according to two types; the French and English fashion. The latter fashion is followed by the German artisans. The legs of the French compass stand apart in the middle and run together first at their tips, but, on the other hand, the legs of the English compass are in contact continually at [ad] and [ae]. Following the latter style, the compass receives a complete shell from the casting on each side below the joint and the file and a few half shells are added to the edges. If the artisan files the rough surfaces of the steel feet [bd] and [ce], then he clamps the compass into the vice with the aid of the ring vice (Volume V, page 9) in order to give the surfaces mentioned an oblique position in the vice. The file must work each foot in such a manner that the point is fine but so that a small arching remains at [h] in the middle of the foot. This restrains the point of the compass from penetrating too deeply into the paper.{Page 295}The tip [c] and [d] must be particularly hard and therefore they will be hardened carefully. The instrument maker directs a flame of a lamp on the point with a blow pipe, allows the steel to become cherry-brown and places it in oil or tallow. At this point, he just holds the foot in the flame of the lamp but in such a manner that the tip itself is not touched by the flame. The heat nonetheless is imparted to the tip and when it turns blue then it is quenched again in oil or tallow. Finally one polishes the compass in the following manner: the brass will be ground with the black water stone and completely smoothed with tripoli and olive oil applied with a piece of soft wood. The artisan grinds the steel feet with a fine gray oil stone and finally polishes them with emery and olive oil or with a steel burnisher.As is well known, one can remove the pointed foot [bd] of a drawing compass, and, in its place, insert a drawing pen, a lead tube, and in its place, insert a drawing pen, a lead tube, and a dotting wheel. A useful drawing pen [Figure VI] must meet precisely on the half of the foot mentioned above when the pen is completely turned about against the fixed foot of the drawing compass. It consists of a small block [bcd] and both the steel plates [ab]. The artisan cuts the steel plates from strong spring steel (page 291) and solders them onto the cast{Page 296}brass upper part [bc] of the small block first. For each steel cheek, he makes a slot in the little block with the saw and sets each cheek into its sawed-out slot. They will not just be inserted, however, but will be soldered in place with hard solder. If one places the unformed pen on the coals during soldering then both the cheeks are bound together with wire so that they do not slip. Both parts of the small block [bcd] will be struck with a hammer at this time to make them more compact and they are joined by a joint [c] formed by a screw. All of this is easily clarified from the manufacture of the compass as well as the finishing of the whole with the file, the hardening of the tip of the steel, and the polishing. The handle of those drawing pens that one calls hand pens are cast and turned on the lathe. The lead pipe [Figure VII ab] likewise stands on the small block [bcd]. The pipe itself [ab] will be rolled together from thin sheet brass and will be soldered on the tenon of the small block. The dotting wheel will be skipped, since it is not used very much anymore. From this description, it is now a simple matter to explain the genesis of the hand compass. It is a bit smaller than the drawing compass and differs from it in no aspect other than that both feet are fastened exactly like the foot [Figure I ce] of the drawing compass. (Page 288) The {Page 297}movable foot of the hair compass receives a spring rather than the tenon by which the foot [Figure I bd] of the drawing compass was fastened in the brass. The artisan sinks this spring in the brass like a tang and simply fastens it with a small screw below [g]. Those familiar with these things know, that one can position the foot with the greatest precision by means of this tang aided by the positioning screw [c].2) After the compass, without doubt, the most important instrument in a case of mathematical instruments is the protractor [Figure VIII] and it will therefore take the second place in our descriptions. The practical protractor will possess two important qualities. It will close precisely onto the paper during use and it will be divided into whole and half degrees with precision. The artisan sketches the instrument out in the rough on a piece of brass sheet following a pattern. The sheet brass is measured every time for the size of the protractor. The sketched protractor is cut out with a chisel. A protractor that is warped is completely useless. Therefore the artisan must confer all possible density to the metal. To this end, he planishes the brass sheet with the hammer on the anvil until the metal no longer yields. During this operation, he has a straight ruler at hand, with which he can test the protractor on every side to see whether or not its surfaces are completely smooth.{Page 298}The protractor must come from the anvil with this trait. The underside of the metal arc [abc] as well as the rule [ad] on which each stands is completely smooth. The side of the metal arc that will be divided into 180 degrees will be sharpened conically with a file, however. This provides one with the ability to position the mark of a whole or half degree exactly over a point on the paper. The outer perimeter [abc] must not be as sharp as the edge of a knife since it would easily wear out. Instead it should receive the thickness of card paper. Before being divided into degrees, the protractor must be smoothed with not only the rough and smooth files, but also with pumice. While filing, the skilled artisan tends to hollow the underside of the instrument a little bit along its breadth in order to enable the user to press the protractor all the more tightly and more precisely to the paper during use. The most important but most tiresome part is dividing the protractor into its whole and half degrees. This division would cause infinitely more trouble and fatigue for the artisan if he didn't make the work easier by using a partitioning disk.The partitioning disk THEILSCHEIBE [Figure IX] is very simple in itself but is nevertheless valuable when its partitions, that the artisan provides for the division {Page 299}of the circle into its degrees, are completely accurate. On the strong, hard wooden disk [ab] lies a brass ring [cdef] that is about an inch broad. The ring will not be inlaid into the wood since the wood often warps and bends the ring a bit. An iron cross composed of two bands [ce] and [df] is inlet into the wood in order to keep the wood from warping but this objective is not always reached with precision. A slightly hollowed out centerpoint [g] for the disk and the ring [cdef] is positioned on one band. Two or three circles are drawn on the ring [cdef] from this center point during the manufacture of the disk. Then the artisan divides one into whole degrees with all possible exactness; the other, into quarter degrees, and the last, into sixths of a degree and these precisely divided circles provide him with the division for the whole and half circles as well as a quadrant. The partitions that one calls "umbra recta" and "versa" are not required now and therefore they are not found on the partitioning disks of the newer artisans. With all practical divisions and thus, with the division of the circle as well, the universal law is in force: one must never find the whole from its parts but rather the reverse. Experience teaches{Page 300}that the smallest error that occurs during the division of the smaller parts has a noticeable impact on the whole. The artisan therefore divides the whole in the largest parts convenient and he follows this same rule with these and the other small parts. He first lays out a circle on the partitioning disk, that he wants to divide into degrees with a trammel into four equal parts and keeps the trammel positioned carefully without shifting the established opening. Just one quarter of the circle needs to be divided into its smaller parts since one can easily find the division of the remaining three quarters from this division. The particular quarter of the circle, one lays out with a second trammel into three equal parts whose established dividing points stand thirty degrees from each other. If the artisan divides each third of the last partition into three equal parts once more then the established dividing points will lie ten degrees from each other. He can split the latter small parts completely and by this means gets dividing points that have a distance of five degrees from a degree just mentioned. Every collar of the circle that is opened along two degrees from the {Page 301}last established dividing point finally indicates a whole degree. From this description, it is shown that when a small part of the circle is correctly divided one can find the division of the remaining similar sized parts from this partition. If a quarter of the circle is precisely divided, then the artisan places one of the feet of the trammel mentioned above [Figure X], that is open corresponding to a quarter of the whole circle, on each point of the divided quarter and the other foot indicates the partition point of the next quarter et cetera. If the division is to be accurate then the foot of the compass must only penetrate a small amount into the metal. The result will show that each partition point is somewhat depressed and for this purpose, the artisan has a special instrument. For this reason, a partition point must be depressed no more and no less than the another if the division of a mathematical instrument is to prove without noticeable errors. The instrument in mind [Figure XI] has the following parts: in a fastened case [bc], on a small iron band [ab], a gauge point [de] is placed, that stands without vibrating in its hole but has no other fastening and is pointed at [e]. A second movable casing [f] caries a small weight [g]. The artisan pre-positions a highly pointed gauge point into each partition point, places the instrument [Figure XI] next to the{Page 302}partition point in such a manner that the point [e] of the gauge fits in, and lets the weight [g] fall on the gauge point [de]. If he wants a partition point exactly as deeply depressed as the others though, he must always raise the weight to the same height as he has the other times. He raises it each time as far up as the length of the rod [ab] allows.The scientific instrument maker divides the whole and half protractor and a few small pieces that will be named presently with this partitioniong disk, since both of these divisions normally arise from this instrument. In cutting out the protractor, he can leave an extra piece at both corners [Figure VIII e, f] that will be drilled through and fastened with two small nails onto the wooden partitioning disk [Figure IX] The centerpoint [g] of the arc [Figure VIII abc] must be brought to lie precisely on the centerpoint of the partitioning disk [Figure IX g] beforehand. To this end, the scientific instrument maker opens a trammel out to the centerpoint [g] of the partitioning disk along the radius of the circle along which he wishes to divide the protractor. He shifts the protractor on the partitioning disk until its centerpoint appears to cover the centerpoint of the partitioning disk and tests the first point left by the foot of the trammel. Now he fastens the protractor with the two nails in the manner described above and, with the above-mentioned opening of the trammel, marks out the four points{Page 303}of the circle of the partitioning disk with which he will divide the protractor's arc on the protractor at [Figure VIII g]. He takes the bisected point to be the centerpoint of the protractor. The circle frame that one notices on each protractor will be defined with the sharp point of the trammel from the point [g] and cut in at the same time. For the division of the degrees, the artisan must possess a precise iron ruler [Figure XII] that has a small tenon or point at [h] on each side that are positioned precisely over each other. He places one of the points of the ruler into the somewhat recessed hole in the centerpoint of the protractor and the other he places in a hole [i] of the iron plate [Figure XII kl]. On this latter plate, a piece of lead lies that weighs about ten to twenty pounds. The ruler [Figure XII] will thus be fastened completely in this manner at one end and runs on its tenon [h] like a wheel on its axle. Besides these two tenons, the ruler has a further fine point [m] on a movable casing. This point [m] fits precisely into the centerpoint of the partitioning disk. The artisan has nothing more to do other than to position the movable casing preliminarily in such a manner that its point [m] falls precisely into the partitioning point of the circle on the ring of the partitioning disk corresponding to that which he desires to divide. The protractor and the casing are fastened with a positioning screw. During the division itself, he places the point [m] out from a partition point of the{Page 304}partitioning disk continually into the neighboring point and draws the scratch on the protractor according to the ruler. He begins the division at [Figure VIII fc] and finishes at [ae]. The marks on the protractor will be drawn and cut in at the same time with a drawing hook [Figure XIII]. The tip [a] of the drawing hook resembles the tooth of the saw and is precisely as thick as the drawn line on the protractor is broad. All of the marks of the whole and half degrees will be drawn on the protractor. The degree that the trammel makes along the circle, along with the marks that the drawing hook makes, will be polished with a whet stone. The artisan draws a line [ac] cutting across through the centerpoint [g] along the division of the degrees. He also draws the lower partitioning lines [ae] and [fc] on the protractor [Figure VIII] and, in addition completely files out the ruler [ad]. At the same time, he removes all superfluous material with the same instrument. In general, with this and all similar operations this universal law is observed; namely, that the artisan must never remove the superfluous material from an instrument with the chisel if the instrument has already been divided precisely. The chisel exerts a certain depressing force by which the instrument and particularly its divisions will easily receive a distortion. Therefore, not only the superfluous material on the unfinished protractor will be removed by the file, but the artisan also files {Page 305}out the lily that visibly indicates the centerpoint [g] of the protractor with the same tool. The protractor will be polished with a whet stone and will be completely polished with tripoli and olive oil. The numbers will finally be struck in with a stamp.3) A ruler of beaten brass or hard wood on which a scale usually is marked off always tends to lie in a case of instruments. It comes to have this only on the following pieces: first, the artisan must test the sides of the ruler precisely in order to see whether or not they are completely straight along their length. It appears to be just a triviality from the external appearance that the sides of a ruler are worked out straight, but it requires effort and care in the operation. With a short ruler a minute flaw is not very noticeable but when it is a few feet long, then it is easily apparent to the eye during use. The artisan draws a straight line along each side of the new ruler following a precise old one and, with a coarse file, files off the metal that stands outside of the drawn line in such a manner that, along the line, not even a fine degree remains. This he can remove with a fine file like a fine wire. He covers the filed side of the ruler with powdered emery and olive oil and grinds it next to the side of an accurate old ruler on a board until all the file marks are completely ground off.{Page 306}The scientific instrument maker learns with the most certainty whether the ground sides of the ruler are straight or not when he holds this ruler next to another in such a manner that both rulers overlap. Admittedly, he will never smooth the sides of a metal ruler so precisely that the daylight cannot shine through the joint between the two rulers but he can still notice whether more light passes through at one particular place than at another. If he lays a ruler horizontally on the other during this test, then the uppermost will close upon the lower by its own weight and the desired result is thwarted. It sometimes follows that the test mentioned nevertheless allows the daylight to slip through, if one of the rulers has a curvature already before the grinding that ground out a hollow on the other one. One can remedy this flaw most easily if both rulers are the same length and are turned about frequently. The metal rulers, as well as those that the artisan makes from hard wood, will be ground in this manner. Secondly, what pertains to the scale on the protractor applies to the ruler, thus it will be divided efficiently with the calipers, but following the universal rule that one has already given above on page 299. If, for example, a Rhenish foot is to be set onto the ruler, then the artisan does not catch an inch with the compass and carry it twelve times but he first delineates{Page 307}the length of the entire foot on the scale and divides this gradually into its smaller parts. The foot itself, he first lays out in two equal parts, and each part again in half, etc. What remains pertaining to the division of the mathematical scales in there smallest parts is taught by mathematicians and there is just this to mention. The artisan must have precise scales of all types that serve him as a guide in dividing. The largest of the tapered scales stand at his pleasure, but with the restriction that its parts must have a relation to an established long scale. For example, the foot of a reduced scale that is made for the use of the mathematician must be a quarter or a half as long as a normal one.4) A metal triangle soils the paper and therefore, one commonly makes them from a hard wood, the corner though are made of beaten brass. The right angle of the triangle as well as the corners the artisan finds most precisely if he describes a circumference angle in a half circle. Normally, he relies on an precise corner that he has manufactured in this way. The side of both instruments will be ground down by emery and olive oil like the sides of the ruler. The right angle, one tests in the following manner: One {Page 308}clamps an accurate ruler in a vice and positions the new instrument with an old right angle on the ruler. If the base as well as the CATHETE of the both instruments fits precisely upon one another at every point then the new instrument is perpendicular. The sides of the inner corner of an adjusted corner hook now can be easily drawn parallel to the others. All other minutiae of a drawing kit, for example, a parallel ruler, will easily be surveyed from the foregoing text. The small paint cups, the artisan turns from ivory or he has the turner turn them. This same principle applies to the case that a few artisans manufacture themselves, others though have a bookbinder make it.
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II. Instruments for Surveying 1) Among these instruments, the measuring chain that normally tends to be five rods long will be discussed first. Such a chain will be assembled from iron wire links and brass rings in such a manner that a long wire link and a small brass ring that separates each foot from the next is exactly one foot long. A whole and a half rod are distinguished from the others by a large diamond shaped ring of brass. The latter large ring one calls SCHACKEN and they {Page 309}receive a brass rod in their center so that they do not contract during the use of the chain. Finally, the chain receives a large hand ring on each end through which a bar is placed. On each end of a diamond shaped ring, a swivel is positioned with an eye that joins the swivel by means of a small brass ring to the next wire link. All of the wire links also have an eye on each end with which they hook onto the small brass rings. The eyes of the wire links, for which one uses annealed iron wire, will be bent round on the mandrel entirely but all the brass rings are cast. The most important thing about the manufacture of a chain is adjusting the length of each foot and each rod to precision. In this operation, the artisan lays the chain on a bar on which he has marked a rod and that has been divided precisely according to its ten geometrical feet. If the chain has a foot that is too long, then he drives the eye of the wire link next to one or the other brass ring of this foot together suitably with the hammer. On the other hand, he must draw the eyes together somewhat and by this means the wire link is lengthened if the foot is too short.2) During surveying, the stand supports the surveyor's table, the compass, and the astrolabe. Only the metal fittings of such a stand belong to the work of the scientific instrument maker, since the wood{Page 310}can be obtained from a turner and cabinetmaker. There are monopod and tripod stands. The monopod stand is a wooden rod that is one and a half inches thick and four feet high and has an iron point below. The manufacture of this point will be addressed during the discussion of the tripod stand [Figure IV]. The woodworker assembles this stand from a wooden conical head [ab], that is three inches thick, and three feet [bd]. The cabinet maker divides the lower perimeter [b] of the conical head into three equal parts and then cuts away three equal pieces [be] along these divisions resembling a half circle. Into each slot, he fits the upper part of a foot [bd]. Into a slot below the head [ab] at [b], the scientific instrument maker inlets a three footed brass cross whose feet or screws are at the same distance from each other. Each arm of the cross pierces a foot [bd] of the stand and receives a screw on its tip in order to fasten the foot of the stand with a female screw on the head [ab] and to adjust it at the same time. The feet of the stand will be fitted with an iron point [cd]. On the iron point that he has forged for him, the artisan solders a brass casing [c] that one has noticed because the iron has an influence on the magnetic needle of the compass if it touches the wood directly. Therefore the tip of the foot is just placed in the brass case [c] mentioned above. The casing{Page 311}will be cast, finished with the file, and soldered on the iron point with spelter solder.On the tenon [a] of the stand, a nut or sphere is placed during use that not only carries the surveyor's table, compass, and the astrolabe, but also provides the convenience that one can adjust the instruments mentioned according to the nature of the circumstances. The parts of such a nut are as follows: The lower casing [Figure XV ab] during use will be placed on the tenon of the stand, so that, like the tenon [d], the half sphere [cd] is set into the opening [a] of the casing. Both of the half spheres [dc] and [ec] surround and fasten a small sphere whose tenon [e] is placed in the upper casing [ef]. The instrument maker joins both of the half spheres [dc] and [ec], with four screws in such a manner that a gap [c] interlocks the upper half sphere [ec] over the rim of the lower [cd]. The rims of both half spheres do not touch directly though. Thus if the sphere that fits into both of these half spheres is ground down from use, then one can drive both of the half spheres together more closely by means of the four screws mentioned and the sphere will be fastened once again. The tenon [e] of this sphere is put on horizontally and therefore the upper half sphere [ec] receives a slot [e] and the lower one [dc] receives a round cut out bearing. On the plate [f], the surveyor's table or the astrolabe finally will be fastened with four small screws.{Page 312}The lower casing [ab] is cast hollow with a core as is the upper casing [ef]. The remaining pieces are delivered solid from the casting. All of these pieces are finished on the lathe. This presents the best opportunity for discussing some characteristics of the lathe of the instrument maker that differs from the others in a few particulars.The frame of this lathe [Figure XVI], like all the others, has a forward side [ab] and a rear side [cd], that carry two thick slats, that, taken together, one tends to call the bed [ef]. Between both slats, the tenon of a pin or transverse block [gh] will be set in. He allows it to slide on its tenons between the slats and secures it with a wedge [h]. Its steel tip [g], that is fastened with wing nut bears the work so that one turns off on the one side but this is only done for very simple pieces. Since one merely fastens the remaining work into the hollow stock [ik] which like the transverse block is tenoned into the bed. In a steel casing of this hollow stock [ik], a brass spindle [lm] runs on one side since, at the other end, it will be borne by a point [m] that is fastened into the forward side [ab]. Instead of the fixed casing in the hollow stock [ik] into which the spindle is placed at [l], some artisans place a steel lever that can be raised or lowered by means of two screws in order to adjust the spindle with great precision. This spindle [lm] will {Page 313}for that reason be tenoned into the casing of the hollow chuck conically so that one can press more closely onto the hollow chuck [ik] and can fasten the spindle [lm]. It has a strong female screw in the opening [l] into which one can screw the screw like the tenon of any casing. The form of one such wooden casing, which bears the work that one is turning down, must be measured each time on the form of this work. If, for example, the artisan wants to turn the inside of a hollow piece of metal, then he marks the outside with a piece of chalk and places it in the conical hole of the casing [Figure XVII]. The screw [a] of the casing fits into the nut [l] of the spindle on the lathe [Figure XVI]. However, if he is turning this conical piece on the outside then he places it on a wooden cone [Figure XVIII]. In this same manner, both of the casings are provided with a hollow cylinder but with the difference that the hole of the casing [Figure XVII] as well as casing itself [Figure XVIII] is cylindrical. He slides a sphere nearly half way into the hole of a casing [Figure XIX] that is to be turned like a cylinder, since a spherical hole of the sphere does not confer enough tenacity. Flat face plates will be fastened in front of the casing with just a pair of nails that are smooth at [Figure XIX ab], if one wants to turn a round hole on such a face plate. The holes into which the nails are placed the artisan fills imperceptibly {Page 314}with a countersunk screw when the work has already been turned. He acquires all the hard wood casings from a wood turner and changes its tenon [Figure XVII a] into a screw with a goat's foot (chisel) of the wood turner. The screws of all his casings must be the same size so that they fit completely into the female screw [Figure XVI l] of the spindle of his lathe. Between the chuck and the transverse block of this lathe [Figure XVI], a jig or a pattern [no] slides on the bed [ef]. Most advantageous is such a jig that one has already described in the tract about the small lathe of the watch case maker on page 112. Instead of this, one sees a pattern with a wedge on some lathes. The wedge [n] will be inserted within a slot in a hollow block according to the nature of the work and is fastened with a screw. Thus the pattern must carry the turning chisel during the work and therefore one must be able to slide it along the form of the work that one is turning. As is well known, the artisan sets the lathe in motion with his foot on the treadle [p]. On this pedal, a strong gut cord is placed that is wound twice around the spindle [lm] and on the other end, tied to a spring rod or rocker. This thus forms a double means by which one gets the force that opposes the force of the foot of the worker. In the first case,{Page 315}a spring rod will simply be nailed onto the ceiling of the workshop and is joined by means of the string [pq]. On the other hand, one can also fasten a lever [qr] that is called the rocker on the rear side [cd] and join it to a spring rod [bs] with a rope [rs]. In order to increase the force, a second spring pole lies under this one that is joined to the former in the middle by means of a ring. Lathes of the latter type afford the convenience that one can position them at every spot in the work shop. The instrument maker must make large screws fairly often and therefore he gives his lathe an arrangement so that an untrained hand can turn such a screw by itself. A few artisans in this case use a so called guide, others, however, use a pattern with a register. If they cut the screw with a guide, then there are broad and narrow screw threads [t] of all sorts cut into the spindle [lm]. In the manufacture of a screw, they choose one of these threads that is the best for the work so that the edge of the guide [Figure XX] on the chuck [ik] of the lathe grips in such a manner that the form of the spindle is hollowed out in the first circumference of the screw threads selected. The end [c] lies next to the casing of the lathe on which the brass is placed that one wants to transform into a screw{Page 316}and on this end [c] the screw cutting tool is laid with which one cuts the screw. If the artisan pushes the treadle down and thereby moves the spindle [lm], then the screw threads pull on the spindle in which the edge [Figure XX a] grips, and the guide moves along the direction [Figure XVI lm]. He removes his foot so the guide returns to [mi]. The tool rests immovably on the guide. It will thus shift with the guide and cuts into the brass corresponding to the measure of the screw threads in the spindle [lm]. A description of the turning chisel, with which one turns screws will make the foregoing text more comprehensible. A screw must be cut with a screw cutting chisel [Figure XXI] but its nut must be cut with a nut cutting chisel [Figure XXII]. The teeth of the screw cutting chisels must fit the teeth of the nut cutting chisel precisely. The screw threads [r] on the spindle [Figure XVI lm] will also be cut with the screw cutting chisel. From this, it follows at the same time that the artisan must cut a screw every time with one chisel whose teeth fit into the threads of the spindle into which one has set the edge [Figure XX a] of the guide. Each nut and screw chisel has three or four teeth that just cut one thread since their slots pass into each other. The multiplicity of the teeth provides the advantage that the threads are cut out more evenly{Page 317}and cleanly. If a tenon is to be transformed into a screw, then the screw cutting chisel is placed next to the end of the guide [Figure XX b]. If one, however, wishes to cut the female screw into a bored out hole, then the nut cutting chisel [Figure XXII] is placed on the arm [c] of the guide. Moreover, the teeth of such screw or nut cutting chisels as well as the screws can be either sharp or flat. One has already mentioned above that a few artisans use a pattern in conjunction with an index to advantage instead of the guide on the spindle. The spindle [Figure XXIII ml] of such a lathe will be inserted into the chuck [ik] with a cylindrical tenon [l] without a fastening and the forward part [ab] also grips it at [m] with a loose cylindrical tenon. They also have screw threads or patterns [t] of all kinds between both chucks. At [u] they receive a sharply angled slot since, if the artisan turns other work besides screws, then he must stop the spindle so that it does not return to [lm]. In the slot of a wooden foundation [vw], a wedge will be placed in this case that catches into the slot [r] of the spindle and it is compelled to only move in circles. On this same foundation [vw] an index lies in the slot under each pattern of the spindle [lm]. One such index [x] of metal lined with ivory has a round{Page 318}cut out section that is hollowed out according to the circumference of the pattern below the spindle. The section gets screw threads like a female screw that fits into the screw threads of its pattern. If an instrument maker wants to cut a screw on its casing then he pulls the wedge [u] out and thereby gives the spindle [lm] the freedom to shift during the motion of the lathe from [lm] and back again. Against each of the patterns from which he wants to cut a screw, he presses its index [x] with a wedge and he holds the screw cutting chisel fixedly on the pattern during the turning. The spindle slides during the turning according to the measure of its index [x] as does the brass on the spindle that one wants to transform into a screw. Everything else remains the same as with the former process. Such an arrangement of the lathe places the artisan in the position of being able to turn a piece of brass with the greatest alacrity and to turn screws without further preparation. Practiced artisans also have the dexterity to turn the screw with the chisel free hand without such an assisting apparatus. They must move the lathe quite slowly for the first cut and if they press their foot down the screw cutting chisel will shift on the model in the direction of [Figure XVI lm]. When they release it, however, they will shift in the direction from [m] to [l]. If the first cut is turned precisely,{Page 319}then it guides the turning chisel by itself.It is time, however, to speak of the other uses of this lathe also and this is premised by a familiarization with the turning chisels. a) With a narrow turning chisel, that has a half round tip [Figure XIV], the artisan preliminarily skims a piece that he wants to turn down or, to put it more plainly, he brings it out rough with this. At the same time he can also turn a narrow groove with this chisel. b) The pointed chisel [Figure XXV] has two facets at the fore that form a point. One tests a skimmed piece of metal with this to see whether it is completely round and also cuts in fine rings or slots with the tip during the finishing. c) The artisan gives his work the complete forming out with a narrow or broad flat chisel [Figure XXVI]. Its edge is straight. d) The cutting chisel is just a bit smaller than the flat steel and the artisan uses this turning chisel when he wants to cut a broad band in deeply. e) Another type of flat chisel has an oblique cut edge to the right or left side that is either straight or rounded off [Figure XXVII]. With the first one turns a very pointed angle, with the latter though he turns a hollow groove. Above all, with a flat steel, nearly no edge is superfluous. For this reason, the edges [ab] on the facets of the ordinary flat chisel [Figure XXVI]{Page 320}tend to be round and one can use them for hollow grooves and turn out hollow bodies with the long edges [bc]. The cutting edge of the turning chisel that one wants to use on the metals in general must have a double quality. They must not be too dull if they are not to break, and the facets that comprise the edge must be ground to approximately a forty-five degree angle.The operation of the lathe in turning a sphere [Figure XV] for a stand will be illustrated. For the sake of its stability, the lower brass casing [ab] will be marked with chalk as will all the other pieces and will be snapped into a chuck that has a conical hole [Figure XVII]. In this way one turns down the inner hollow of the nut [Figure XV ab] first with the sharp and long edges [bc] of a flat chisel [Figure XXVI]. The artisan then clamps the hull [Figure XV ab] on a casing that resembles a conical tenon [Figure XVIII] and turns the opening [Figure XV a] of the nut conically inside with the same chisel. The reason being that the tenon [d] of the half sphere [dc] must fit into this opening precisely. Therefore he takes the nut [ab] off of the lathe in order to turn this tenon at once. For this purpose, he clamps the half sphere [dc] in a casing that is hollowed out cylindrically [Figure XIX]. All cylindrical and conical bodies will be skimmed with a half round turning chisel{Page 321}[Figure XXIV] and brought to completion with a flat chisel [Figure XXVI]. At this point, the artisan places the nut [ab] on the lathe again in place of the half sphere [Figure XV dc], covers the tenon [d] of the half sphere with powdered pumice and olive oil, places it in the nut, and emerys it. During this operation, the lathe moves the nut but the artisan holds the tenon still and this rubs into the nut most precisely by this means. After the nut, the artisan turns the inner hollow of the half sphere [dc] and he therefore fastens the turned tenon of the half sphere into a cylindrical hole in a casing. Prior to this, he manufactures the sphere according to the breadth that he will fix in the half sphere in the manner following a guide. He describes a circle in a piece of brass sheet with half the axis of the sphere and cuts a disk from it. The disk [Figure XXVIII a] is the measure of the half sphere but the ring [b] is the measure of the sphere. Hollow spheres will be turned with the half round chisel. This half sphere will normally be turned on the outside on a chuck [Figure XIX], as will the outer side of the half sphere [Figure XV dc]. If he wants to turn this half sphere [gc] internally, then he also clamps it into a cylindrically hollowed chuck [Figure XIX]. First, he turns the groove or the recess, that catches over the lower half sphere at [d] in the assembly and he{Page 322}therefore holds this half sphere from time to time in the upper one. The spherical hollow of this half sphere carries a third of the sphere that is fastened into the half sphere. The tenon [e] of the sphere the artisan turns exactly like the tenon [d] of the lower half sphere. At the same time, he also turns the upper nut [ef] internally, just like the former nut and emerys the tenon [e] of the nut. {Page 321} The sphere will be clamped by its tenon in a casing and will be turned down by a half round and a flat turning chisel. They receive their complete roundness when one coats them with pumice and oil, fastens them into both of the of the half spheres [de], and turns them along all the sides until they are completely smooth. A sphere without a tenon, however, gets a cross cut before the turning and along this, the artisan turns it down. The cross cut lets the artisan arrive at the roundness suitably. The lathe does not smooth them completely, however. Therefore one rubs a hole in a piece of pumice with the sphere and grinds it down in this indentation. The upper hull of the nut finally will be mortised into the disk [f] and soldered on with spelter solder. Once assembled, both pieces are turned finally on the exterior on a cylindrical chuck. All turned metal is ground at once on the lathe with pumice and a whet stone and are polished with the aid of a soft piece of wood coated in tripoli and olive oil.{Page 323}The lathe speeds this work noticeably.3) The simplest instrument which the surveyor places on the stand is the surveyor's table, by which appellation one refers to a rectangular board and a diopter guide. The board [Figure XXIX ab] tends to be sixteen to eighteen inches in diameter and is made of dense, smooth wood. The instrument maker draws a diagonal line on the board, describes a circle from the mid point [i] according to the measure of the holes of the disk of the nut [Figure XV f], drills four holes in this circle and glues a brass nut into each of the holes in order to fasten the board onto the sphere of the stand with screws. The thick sheet brass nuts will be cut with a tap and this applies to all small screws and nuts as well. Therefore, the manufacture of these small pieces will not be considered again in the following text. The most important piece of the surveyor's table is the diopter guide [cd] which receives a diopter at each end [ec] and [df] that either screw tightly onto the scale or are affixed with a hinge. The scale itself [cd] will be made from beaten brass like all others and the artisan tends to mark off a few measuring marks on the side. A fine hole is drilled through a projecting flap [k] on the engraved line [d] of this guide {Page 324}since the guide will be fastened on the board [ab] by a needle during use. The centerline of each diopter [ce] and [df] does not fall on the centerline of the scale but to the side [cd] of the scale instead as the engraved lines are called, so that about half of the diopter projects out from the scale. Both diopters will be cut from beaten brass and worked with the file. The sight [e] and [g], the artisan saws along the measure of the centerline with a fret saw and he also cuts the slit [h] and [f] with a saw along this same line. In the sight, as is well known, a strand of gut or, better still, a horse hair is stretched out exactly in the center line of the diopter. On the screw fastened diopters, one solders on a flap at a right angle at [f] and [g] that is half as wide as the diopter, before the diopter is beaten compact. One fastens the diopter on the scale with a few screws in these flaps. If the diopter is to be provided with a hinge, then this flap, along with a second that one screws onto the scale with the familiar method, changes it into a hinge. The diopter may now be fastened in the one way or the other, and therefore its centerline must not only fall precisely onto the engraved line [cd] of the scale, but must also stand completely perpendicular to the scale. The artisan measures the centerline of the diopter precisely in the center {Page 325}and places the diopter on the scale according to an accurate try square.4) Along with the surveyor's table, one also places a compass on the stand during surveying. One understands that in this case a compass that is fastened to a brass plate with four screws is given the name compass. The plate [Figure XXX ab] of thick beaten brass sheet tends to be six or seven inches in diameter and receives diopters precisely in the middle of two or all four sides. The diopters stand along with the compass and one lingers on the description of the manufacture of this instrument all the more since one will draw on the present description rather often in the following text. A brass compass ring [Figure XXX cde] serves to cover the magnetic needle and its parts. It tends to have a diameter of five inches. If it is cast from a pattern, then the artisan turns it down inside and out and gives its inner circumference three rims in this operation since it receives the fourth from the casting in the lower opening. On the second rim reckoned from the lowest the base of the magnetic needle rests; on the middle, the degree ring; and on the uppermost, a glass disk. The second rim is raised above the opening of the ring one and a half lines (twelfths of an inch). He supports the base [ce], as mentioned, with a beaten brass sheet. When the artisan
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{Page 326} has turned the base, then he drills four holes through in order to fasten it with four small screws on the rim of the ring. He divides its upper surfaces into eight equal angles that lie on the centerpoint of the disk, with a proportioning disk [Figure IX]. These angles are represented merely with lines and the disk is delivered to an engraver who engraves an eight pointed star along with the name of the regions of the world with a graver. The surfaces of this disk on which the star is placed as well as the following degree ring will be cold silvered. (Volume 5, page 125.) In the centerpoint of the star, the instrument maker screws a pointed steel rod [Figure XXX g] that bears the magnetic needle [fgh]. The tip of the rod must be so fine that one cannot find any facets with the best microscope. In finishing with the file one tapers it with a camber in such a way that the tip doesn't burn when one hardens it. During the hardening, the artisan directs the flame of the lamp with a blow pipe, not directly onto the tip, but on the camber mentioned instead so that the tip itself is not touched by the flame. The heat is nevertheless imparted to the tip and when it is cherry brown, then one places it in olive oil and afterward lets it run blue again (page 295). The rod will be ground to a precise point on a grindstone. One simply turns it around in a circle during this operation{Page 327}with great care. On this fine tip, the magnetic needle [hk] rests which the artisan has forged from good steel. He holds the end of this steel against the needle of a compass before he forms it into a magnetic needle with a file. If the north pole of the magnetic needle points to the end of the steel, then he chooses it to be the south pole of the artificial needle but, if the north pole of the magnetic needle is repelled, then the opposite end is the south pole. One will have observed that far to many points on the magnetic needle are opposed to the magnetic force. Therefore the north pole receives a bit more length; the south pole gets a blunt tip. It is well known that the north pole of a charged needle will tilt downward if both halves are given the same weight on a rod before the steel is magnetized. Therefore the artisan must give surplus weight to the south pole while finishing it with the file so that it will decline toward the base of the compass if one places it on its rod [g]. By this means the inclination of the north pole is raised. In the center point [g], the artisan drills a small hole through the needle into which he fastens a piece of brass. This small button of brass [g] is called the cap. As always, the brass must be as densely beaten as possible since it must suitably withstand the point of the rod{Page 328}on which the magnetic needle rests. The artisan turns the cap on his lathe and at the same time gives it a small rim under the button with which it can be mortised into the hole [g] of the magnetic needle. During the turning, a conical depression arises on the lower surface of this small rim into which the tip of the rod fits on which the magnetic needle rests. This depression must be drilled out more finely with a countersink bit and polished at the same time. The rim of the cap will be tidily riveted into the hole of the magnetic needle. Experience teaches that a hardened steel takes on the magnetic force better. It is joined with the difficulty, however, of hardening the thin magnetic needle since it will commonly warp. Therefore the artisan can harden just the pole points of the magnetic needle precisely as hard as the tip of the rod that carries the magnetic needle. Afterward, they grind the magnetic needle smooth with an oil stone and blue it entirely. The finished steel can now be first magnetized since the file diminishes the magnetic force. Those familiar with such things know, that one uses this expression, "charging the needle", when one wants to indicate that one has imparted magnetic force to the steel. One prefers to use an artificial magnet for the charging and charge the north pole of the needle with its south pole and thus also charge{Page 329}the south pole of the latter with the north pole of the former. In both cases, the artisan places the magnet on the centerpoint of the needle and strokes it toward the point. He strokes one pole as often as the other and normally four or six times. Each time that he made one pass, he comes back to the needle in a circular motion of the hand that holds the artificial magnet since one will have observed that the magnetic force of the needle is lost if one touches it again with the magnet. The needle rests on a metal plate during the charging. Beneath the suspended magnetic needle lies a small brass disk or bearing that will be pierced in its centerpoint by the rod on which the magnetic needle rests in an ample hole. One presses the bearing against the magnetic needle, if the compass is not in use and by this means checks the movement of the needle. The needle tends to wobble on its rod when one carries the compass or when anything else moves it another way. Therefore, during the turning, the newer artisans give a small, conical elevation to the bearing on the one side that is turned against the needle and by this means compels the needle to close on the cap all the more precisely. The bearing will slide onto and off of the magnetic needle in the following manner. Below the floor [ce] on which the magnetic needle is suspended lies a brass elastic spring [Figure XXXI ik]{Page 330}onto which the bearing is fastened with two rods at [k]. Both of the rods pierce the base [dec] in a spacious hole. If one presses a fork [lm] under the spring [ik] by means of a handle [m] that projects from the ring of the compass, then the spring will be driven off of the base and this draws the bearing back from the magnetic needle on the other side of the base [dec]. Thus, the magnetic needle can move freely. If one draws the fork [lm] away again under the spring [ik], then this presses the bearing by its spring pressure against the magnetic needle and prevents the magnetic needle from having any play. The spring [ik], the artisan makes elastic by blows of the hammer. On the third recess of the compass ring [Figure XXX cde] lies the degree ring [o]. The tip of the magnetic needle must extend as close as possible to this ring so that one plainly perceives which degree the magnetic needle indicates. The degree ring will be divided into 360 degrees and each degree will be halved again. One such ring of sheet brass begins as a solid disk until one has divided it on the proportional disk. The artisan will find a center point of a simple ring only with the greatest difficulty using a proportional disk. The degrees will be divided on the proportional disk as they are on the protractor (page 302), and the superfluous disk in the middle will then be removed with a fret saw.{Page 331}The degree ring itself, the artisan snaps into the outer ring [cde] of the compass without any further fastening. He therefore must match its size with great precision during the turning on the lathe and he must often fit it into the compass ring. The base [cde] as well as the degree ring will be finished on the lathe. Finally, on the fourth and uppermost rim of the compass ring [dec], a glass disk is placed which the artisan fastens into the upper opening of the compass ring with a thin band. The rim of the glass disk must be polished with the greatest precision corresponding to the opening of the compass ring so that no dust drops into the compass. The small band, one solders on with strong brass wire and hard solder, turns it on the lathe, and merely snaps it into the compass ring [dec]. The quality of a compass rests on the sensitivity and usefulness of its magnetic needle. If one holds a piece of iron for a few minutes on the ring of the compass so that the needle is drawn out of its position and if it comes to rest each time in the same degree again, this serves as a test since this is the surest practical indicator that the compass is precise and useful. All compasses are manufactured in the manner described above, as well as those that are fastened to an astrolabe.{Page 332}5) This leads to the description of the manufacture of the astrolabe that will also be borne by the stand during use. The diopter of an accurate astrolabe must be covered precisely by view finders when one turns the movable scale around, not to mention that the base plate must be divided into its degrees with care. Every astrolabe has a strong base plate [Figure XXXII abc] and a movable scale [bd]. On both stand two diopters. Usually the base plate receives the form of a half circle only, there are astrolabes describing a complete circle, but they are heavy, and provide no particular advantage. The base plate as well as the scale, the artisan manufactures from thick beaten brass and he cuts both following a paper pattern. For that reason, one manufactures both from a thick brass plate so that the astrolabe stands horizontally more securely on account of its own weight. The brass must be at least one and a half lines (twelfths of an inch) thick. The base plate [abc] receives a ten degree margin beyond a half circle beneath the center line, so that very sharp angles can also be measured and the movable scale [bd] is precisely as long as the diameter of the astrolabe. When the base plate is planished with the hammer, then one files it on both sides completely flat according to the ruler, gives it an equal thickness throughout, and grinds {Page 333}it with pumice and a whet stone. In this condition, the artisan leaves the base plate, planishes the movable scale [bd], and attempts to fasten it on the base plate [abc] with a central disk [gh] in such a manner that the center of its centerline [bd] falls precisely onto the centerpoint of the base plate. The artisan turns the a disk that has a diameter of one and a half inches directly from the center of the scale. The central disk [gh] mentioned above comes to lie in the hole that results in the scale which is precisely filed and fastened to the base plate. The hole of the scale will be turned out conically and the rim of the central disk receives a conical form on the lathe as well so that when it is greased in it will fit precisely into the hole of the scale and this fastens it. From the center point of the central disk [gh], the artisan describes a circle that stands three lines (twelfths of an inch) from its rim and he drills eight holes in this circle an equal distance from each other. By eye, he lays the disk on the center of the center line [ef] of the base plate and drills eight holes through the base plate also corresponding to the placement of the holes on the central disk. Into four holes of the central disk, he rivets in small conical pegs, which only hold the central disk for the time being, since four small screws hold it completely on the base plate in the four remaining holes. The scale [bd] will now {Page 334}be filed down on its bottom surface in such a manner that a raised rim remains around its hole [gh]. For this reason, the scale can only be moved with difficulty due to friction if it rests completely on the base plate. At the same time, the instrument maker also drills a small hole through one end of the scale [bd] alone, fastens the scale again with the central disk [gh], moves it and draws a half circle on the base plate [abc] with a pencil placed in the hole of the scale. With the radius of the circle, he describes arcs on the central disk [gh] using a compass from three points on the circle just mentioned. The point of intersection of these arcs naturally gives the centerpoint of the astrolabe on the center disk [gh]. If the artisan removes the scale with the central disk and describes arcs on the base plate [abc] from three points with the same opening of the compass, then he derives the center point of the base plate that will be covered by the central disk [gh]. The centerpoint of the base plate serves the artisan during the division of the degrees on the proportioning disk [Figure IX]. This division deviates from the division of the protractor (page 302) only in so far as the centerpoint of the astrolabe is already defined. The artisan therefore must push the base plate and with a trammel that he opens it on the proportioning disk to equal the radius of the circle {Page 335}that serves him during the division, until tests employed show that the center point of the base plate covers the center point of the proportioning disk. He fastens the base plate to the proportioning disk with from four to six nails and, when possible, he continues the division until it is complete because his hand already has a steadiness. During this division, each degree will be divided again into four or six equal parts. After the division, the file removes all superfluous material from the base plate. The diopters, the artisan must set up on the base plate as will as on the movable scale with all possible precision. Usually they are attached with screws but they will also be set up with a hinge so that this provides the advantage that the surveyor can measure a very sharp angle unhindered. In that case, the screwed on diopter of the scale obstructs the view finder with the diopter on the base plate. If the diopter has a hinge, then the diopter can fold onto the scale. The manufacture of the diopter has been premised above on page 324 and remains the same here as it stands in the centerline with a flap or with a hinge set up perpendicularly. If the artisan has fastened the immovable diopter [ke] and [fi] to the base plate alone, then he sets the foot of a compass whose tips are bent a bit next to the foot of each diopter so that the compass does not shift{Page 336}at ten degrees over and below the diopter and strikes an arc above at [k] and [i] and below at [e] and [f] on the diopter. If the centerline drawn of the diopter is drawn according to both the points of intersection, then it falls precisely onto the center line [ef] of the base plate. The perpendicular stand of the diopter is defined by the artisan with an accurate try square. Before he can set the diopter [mn] and [lo] onto the movable scale, however, he must define the length of the ruler precisely in part and, in part, file off those points which clip the degrees and therefore tentatively draw the centerline of the scale through the center point of the central disk [gh]. To arive at the first objective, he draws an arc at [b] and [d] and, at the same time, from [l] and [m] as well, out from the center point [gh] of the central disk with a trammel that he has opened to the radius of the astrolabe. Both of the latter arcs, he describes with the radius of the inner opening of the base plate. These latter arcs together define the places where the diopter should be placed and how far the artisan must cut the rectangular openings [bl] and [dm] with a fret saw. In each opening, a point, which will indicate the degree of the astrolabe, will be filed out at [p] and [q] precisely in the centerline. This point must not be finished off too bluntly, however. The movable diopter [lo] and [mn] of the scale, one places alone and adjusts the scale [bd]{Page 337}in such a way that the one point [q] or [p] points directly to 90 degrees. The bent point of the compass mentioned above, the artisan sets first at 180 degrees at [f] and then at [e]. From both points, he describes an arc to each diopter [mn] and [lo] above and below and draws the center line according to both points of intersection on each diopter. Now the sight and the slot of the diopter can be cut out along the centerline and the diopter can be set up alone for testing of their accuracy once again. In doing this, the artisan places the scale [bd] in such a manner that the slots of all four diopters cover each other without flaw when he inspects both sides since this is the surest indicator of the accuracy of all diopters. They must also cover each other however, if the scale [bd] is turned around. If a diopter hangs over one side, then a little must be filed off of its foot according to the nature of the situation and when there are no further imperfections then all four diopters are completely finished with the file and finally fastened down. The entire astrolabe will at last be polished with the usual materials.The mathematician as well as the artisan gradually have endeavored to give this instrument more perfection and one therefore must address a few words to this matter. First, a compass, that is {Page 338}exactly like the compass [Figure XXX dec], tends to be attached to the movable scale. Only one circumstance is yet to be mentioned; namely, how the compass is fastened in such a manner that its centerpoint precisely covers the centerpoint of the central disk [Figure XXXII gh]. The artisan takes the bare compass ring without its base, divides its lower rim into four equal parts, and drills a hole through the dividing points. At this point, he lays the compass in such a manner on the scale that the center line [bd] of the scale intersects the drilled holes of the compass ring in the middle, sets a compass, that he has opened to the radius of the inner opening of the compass ring, at the center point of the central disk [gh], and tests with the compass whether the inner circumference of the ring just mentioned stands at the same distance at all points from the centerpoint of the central disk. At this time, he makes a mark with a needle through the drilled hole of the ring on the scale, drills a hole through the scale, and fastens the compass ring with a small screw in this hole. He also tests the ring in just the same manner described above when he has drilled the second hole in the scale. If, in the latter situation a flaw appears, then the artisan corrects it by widening the hole drilled first and setting in a larger screw. The noon line of the compass comes to lie exactly on the centerline of the movable scale [bd]. Second, in our day, one has notably altered and improved the entire astrolabe through a new invention.{Page 339}a) An astrolabe like that which one has described shortly before this, indicates at most only the sixth part of a degree since its division would be too small if they were to be extended to the minute. Therefore it was a fortunate discovery that allowed the scale to indicate the minutes. The division of the astrolabe comes not on the base plate, but rather on a separate ring [Figure XXXIII abc] that the artisan fastens with a few small screws along with the outer rim of the base plate. The ring is exactly as thick as the scale [df] and this provides the advantage that one can perceive precisely which degree of the ring [abc] that the centerline [ef] of the scale indicates. The ring will merely be divided into whole and half degrees on the proportioning disk. The scale [defg] closes precisely onto the ring [abc] at [de] since it will be rounded off corresponding to the inner circumference of the ring. It receives no point to indicate the degree, but instead the centerline [ef] shows the position of the tip. Its rounded end [de] is equal to an arc of the ring [abc] that measures exactly thirty one degrees. However, one does not divide the [ae] length of the arc [de] into thirty one degrees but into thirty equal parts instead, and he does this free hand with just the compass. Each of these thirty parts will be halved again so that each half of the scale [fd] is divided into thirty equal parts. On being set, the center line [ef] cuts{Page 340}straight across the ninety degree mark of the ring [abc] as in the illustration so that the mark 1 of the scale [deg] falls, not exactly on the eighty nine and a half degree of the ring [abc], but it is a little bit more in the direction of [a] from this half degree instead. Those experienced easily see from the division of the scale that this offset of the mark 1 from the eighty nine and half degree measures one minute. Just as easily they will understand that the mark 2 of the scale stands two minutes from the eighty nine degree of the ring, the mark three is three minutes from the eighty eight and a half degree, the mark 4 is four minutes from the eighty eight degree etc. It follows then that the mark 30 of the scale stands a half degree from the seventy five degree of the ring [abc]. Turned about it follows that if one shifts the scale only as far as from [d] to [e], that its mark 1 will indicate exactly eighty nine and a half degrees, the centerline [fg] will be as far from the ninety degree of the ring corresponding to the direction [de] so that the distance measures one minute. If one shifts the scale further along the former direction so far that the mark 2 points to the eighty nine degree, then the centerline [ef] is two minutes from the ninety degree. It indicates three minutes if the mark 3 is exactly on eighty eight and a half, four minutes if the mark 4 points to eighty eight degrees and so on. Thus, if the centerline [fg] indicates ninety and a half degrees, then the line 30 of the scale falls on seventy five degrees of the ring [abc]. b) Regarding the view finder, experience has taught that one sometimes seems to achieve the objective, but not entirely precisely with the diopters, and it is{Page 341}difficult to rectify these minute flaws by the shifting of the scale. If the astrolabe is to show minutes, however, then not even the smallest flaw can be tolerated. This deficiency of a normal astrolabe will happily be improved if one adjusts the scale in such a case with a screw that has very fine threads. One then places a brass bracket [Figure XXXIV abcd] on the astrolabe next to the scale and fastens it below with two small positioning screws [e] and [f]. In a cylinder [bg] on this bracket, a second shorter cylinder [hi] is mortised in with a conical tenon. The tenon is simply fastened with a nut at [g] and one can thus turn the cylinder around easily. In this cylinder [hi], a direction screw [hk] is placed that receives very fine threads. It fits into a second cylinder [k] that is loosely mortised into a small brass plate [lm] like the former cylinder. Beneath this brass plate stand two brass rods [n] and [o] and, during use, each fits into a hole of the movable scale. Thus one can adjust the scale by means of the screw [hk] with great precision. c) When one also sometimes encounters the need to sight on distant objects with the astrolabe that the naked eye cannot perceive clearly, one has invented the means of strengthening the eye. This is the reason that the newer artisans give the astrolabe a telescopic{Page 342}sight rather than the diopter. One such sight tube will be fastened on the centerline of the scale [Figure XXXII bd] as well as on the base plate [ef]. The telescope of the scale stands on small brass feet. The second telescope must be fastened below the base plate with rings, however, so that it does not hinder the movement of the scale. The length of each telescopic sight is determined by the size of the astrolabe. The tubes themselves will be rolled up from sheet brass on a mandrel, soldered, and turned. Ocular glass will be placed in both tubes that can be pulled apart. In front of the objective lens, the artisan fastens a cross hair of very fine brass wire precisely in the center line. The local instrument maker, Mr. Ring, has already manufactured a few astrolabes of this type.5) The levelling instruments which are essential for surveying will close the section on the instruments of surveying. No other single type of mathematical instrument exhibits as many variations as with this one, and there is not enough space to name them all and there is still less to describe them all. It will be sufficient if one remains with a few of them. In past times, for levelling, one used the astrolabe that, with a swivel, would hang at precisely ninety degrees from a stand. The astrolabe must level out like water from its own weight. Without{Page 343}this feature, the instrument would be useless for this purpose. However, it is nearly impossible to finish an astrolabe so precisely that its weight is completely balanced. As a result, the levelling instrument most familiar is the Piccart type with twin diopters, that various mathematicians have gradually improved. On a thick base ruler [Figure XXXV ab] of beaten brass with two diopters [ad] and [bc] that are two and a half feet from each other, stand two brass triangles [efg] and [fgh] precisely in the center line. The triangle will be screwed on at [f] and [h] with a flap and receives a perpendicular line at [eg] that indicated at [i] on the side of the rule as well. At the point [e], a lead ounce hangs on a horse hair. The instrument can be attached by a swivel at [e] onto a stand and, at [g], hangs a ten to fifteen pound weight that pulls the level down fixedly. One tends to put a wind screen that is covered with taffeta or waxed canvas on the stand in order to protect the instrument from the force of the wind. The most useful instruments of this type always seem to be those that can truly be called water levels [Figure XXXVI]. For this reason the surveyor fills such a water level with water and finds the horizontal line by the water line. They are assembled from a few brass tubes so that they{Page 344}can be carried more easily. Initially it should also be mentioned that all of these tubes will be rolled together from sheet brass on a mandrel, soldered together with hard solder on the coals, beaten more densely on the mandrel, and, finally, turned on the lathe. The brass becomes brittle and is easily broken if one brings it into the fire twice for soldering so it softens in the heat again during the soldering. Both situations compel the artisan to solder sometimes with soft solder or, when a piece is to have greater holding power, with silver solder. The base piece [ab] is twenty two inches long and one and a third inch wide and will be made from sheet brass as are the other tubes. Into each opening [ab] the artisan solders a separate ring with soft solder that he allows to flow and afterward he turns it on the lathe. In this operation the ring receives screw threads in its inner circumference. (Page 315.) Aided by the eight inch long casing [cd], one places the water level on the stand to use it. The casing is cast solid and turned. Its upper opening [c], the artisan files out round according to the circumference of the tube [ab] and solders a curved sheet [ef] into this rounding with spelter solder that projects from the casing three inches on each side. The sheet has no other purpose except to fasten the casing [cd] more securely to the base piece [ab]. It will be soldered to the base{Page 345}piece [ab] with soft solder. Into each ring [ba] of the base piece, a tube [ag] is screwed in along with a knee piece. Each tube with the knee piece is twenty two inches long overall. In the opening [ba] of the tube [ag], the instrument maker solders a ring in with hard spelter solder once again. The ring has a projecting tenon that one turns into a screw by turning on the lathe. By means of this screw, the owner fastens the tube [bg] to the base piece [ab]. On a few water levels, instead of the knee piece [gil], there is a separate perpendicular tube next to the tube [ag]. One has noticed on using such water levels with a perpendicular knee piece, however, that the water noticeably vibrates during the movement of the water level against the perpendicular knee piece from which bubbles rise in the air which naturally is a hinderance to levelling. For this reason, a few artisans place two knee pieces that are positioned at an angle of forty five degrees from each other just like the part [kg] with the tube [ag]. One can easily see that the tube [kl] nonetheless comes to stand perpendicular. The three tubes will therefore be filed obliquely at an angle of twenty two and a half degrees at [hg] and [ki] following the guidance of a paper pattern. The tube [gk] is a few lines (twelfths of an inch) thinner than the tube [ag] and therefore its open end [hg] will be inserted into the tube [ag]. This applies to the tube [kl] as{Page 346}well in relation to the tube [gk]. The tubes will be joined together at the angle required by annealed binding wire and clamps, and the joint [hg] will be soldered with hard spelter solder; the joint [ki], however, will be soldered with silver solder. Finally, in the open end of the tube [kl] a further glass tube or vial must be cemented in delicately with shellac. This glass tube must not only be of equal breadth internally but also must be made from a colorless glass.
Harold // 4:48 AM
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III. Instruments for Surveying Boundaries and for measuring minesA capable scientific instrument maker can easily survey the manufacture of these instruments if he has never manufactured them since they have an exact relationship to the instruments of surveying. The Prussian Department of Mining acquires them exclusively from the local instrument maker, Mr. Bennecke, to whom the editor is indebted for the material for this section. 1) With the fathom cord and fathom chain one measures the course of the shafts in the mines and they take the place of the surveyor's chain. The fathom cord of spun silk tends to be from five to thirty fathoms long. A fathom chain is only five fathom long, however, that is divided into its eighty fathom inches. The fathom inches {Page 347}will be separated from each other by small rings of brass wire, the quarter of each fathom will be separated by a large ring, however. In the center of the ring that indicates the first quarter fathom is a single rod, in the one that represents a half of the fathom; two rods, and so on. The whole chain is assembled from the rings mentioned and fine spun annealed brass wire that one also uses for clavichord strings. The rings will be bent together from brass wire on a mandrel and soldered together with silver solder. The spun wire will tied around the ring merely with pointed tweezers. Such a chain must be as light as possible. They bend during use and a heavy chain would sink to the floor noticeably. For just this reason the2) Hanging level [Figure XXXVII] must be made from very thin sheet brass. This is because one hangs this on the fathom chain if one wants to define the direction of a shaft in degrees. It is not any different than a protractor of thin brass sheet. In the inner opening of the hanging level, a narrow piece of sheet brass remains below the ninety degree mark, on which a perpendicular line is drawn on the degree mentioned. A fine hole will be drilled at [a] in order to tie on a lead weight with a horse's hair. The instrument maker cooks this hair one hour with tallow and oil {Page 348}in water and by this method makes it supple. At [c] and [d] a hook of sheet brass is fastened on the hanging level with small screws on which it can hang from the fathom chain. The artisan bends each hook from sheet brass on rectangular mandrel and gives it a slot in the middle. The chain will often be clamped out obliquely and the hanging level therefore must be fastened with a small clamp in the slot mentioned in this situation. For the sake of holding ability, one hook stands on the right and the other, on the left side of the hanging level. Both must be raised above the centerline [ef] of the hanging level an equal amount, however. 3) The mine or set compass for the most part differs from the ordinary compass [Figure XXX] merely in the purpose of its division. The reason being first that, instead of the stars, merely the regions of the world are represented with lines and secondly, the degree ring is not divided into 360 degrees but into twenty four hours and each hour is divided into eight equal parts. The upper thick rim of the compass ring on which the glass disk rests will thirdly be divided into eight equal parts and in the four partitions of each half of the ring stand the four words morning, late, flat, and standing. Such a compass shows every miner in which region and hour he finds himself.4) The same arrangement is given to the hanging compass as well except that, instead of the bearing of an {Page 349}ordinary compass [page 329), a minute variation is accomplished. The compass will be hung up in a harness on two axes. In the outer ring [Figure XXXVIII abc] of the harness, the inner one [adb] that bears the compass will be fastened. For the sake of convenience the compass can be taken out of the harness. Therefore both of the ends of the ring [adb] are not united but they receive an upright flap in order to fasten the ring to the ring [abc] with a screw [a]. Both rings will simply be cut from beaten sheet brass and they must intersect perpendicularly at their centerline. The outer ring [abc] receives two hooks [e] and [f], just like the hanging level. One hangs the hanging compass on the fathom cord if one wants to find to which region and to which hour a path extends. This compass will also be used sometimes when one wants to make a boundary mark on the paper with5) the adding instrument ZULEGEINSTRUMENT [Figure XXXIX]. On an elongated rectangular brass plate [ef] that is about six to eight inches long stands a piece of brass [abc] whose plate [bc] is raised over [ef] three quarters of an inch. The instrument maker bends the piece of brass [abd] from sheet brass and screws it onto the plate [ef]. In the center of this piece of metal, a disk will be turned out at [e] corresponding precisely to the size of the hanging compass. The centerline [fg] on the piece of metal [bc] {Page 350}must run exactly parallel with the long side of the plate [e] and [f] since the boundary surveyor begins to trace out his sketch from the indication of this line. One also sometimes uses this instrument today on a stand. Then it will be laid in a rectangular slot of a board. The board rests on a stand.6) The angle indicator can also be placed on the stand mentioned since one also levels with this instrument these days. A strong, foot long rule of brass [Figure XL ab] will be mortised into a diopter at both ends and will be fastened with pegs or screws. Each diopter has a hole [g] on both sides of the rule and a cross cut [h] in such a manner that the hole of one diopter falls on the cross cut of the other. At [ed] the artisan stretches a brass wire on which the hanging level will be fastened in order to find the horizontal position of the angle indicator with it. At [d] this wire is fastened, at [e] he wraps it around a swivel however, like the string of a violin. Finally one sets another casing [ik] with a hinge on the rule with screws. With this casing, the boundary surveyor places the angle indicator on the tenon of the stand. One can easily turn it in a circle with the casing, with the hinge of the casing positioned over or under the horizontal line.{Page 351}7) The boundary surveyor most rarely uses the iron disk [Figure XLI]. This is because he uses this instrument instead of a compass only in the single instance when he investigates an iron mine. The artisan fastens a brass ring [abc] onto a wooden block with four screws when he makes this instrument. The ring [abc] surrounds a second [def] and this surrounds a solid disk [gh]. The inner ring [def] can turn as can the disk [hg]. Therefore the rings are joined together with each other and the innermost with the disk exactly as the central disk and the scale of an astrolabe. Page 333. The perimeter of the disk [gh] will be practically divided into twenty four hours. The ring [def] the surveyor just moves with the hand with simply the aid two knobs, but, on the disk [gh], there is a straight edge [ik] for this purpose. On the hook of an arm [k], that is joined to the straight edge [i] by a link, a fathom chain will be fastened during use. The rings [abc] and [def] and the disk [gh], the instrument maker cuts from beaten sheet brass, turns them, and assembles by a conical rim. The straight edge will also be made from thick beaten brass. There is a second type of iron disk but there is not enough space to allow this instrument to be discussed.{Page 352}IV. Optical InstrumentsIt would not be difficult to impart a lengthy narrative about glass grinding and the assemble of the telescopes as far as it is known in Germany. Berlin offers every opportunity of seeing the German artisans working at the grinding mill and writings that speak extensively on optical instruments are not wanting. The last circumstance, however, will likely be excused by the reader if one spares the space and remains silent regarding the optical instruments. The newer writings of this type give a sufficient conception of the glass grinding and of all the other things that one can anticipate in this section not to mention that each artisan carefully conceals his practical advantages. The Englishman Dolland provides a curious example of this. Many German scholars and artisans and, among these, particularly the local Mr. Ring have exerted great effort to ascertain the secrets of the Englishmen. What they have accomplished is familiar enough. There are two advantages that distinguish the Dolland telescopes from the rest. The English have the advantage that in their father land, the excellent flint and crown glass are made since, in contrast, the German artisans can only use the ordinary mirror glasses for glass grinding. The{Page 353}Germans have been able to acquire the types of glass just mentioned from England but they are seldom so fortunate as to receive the most useful glass of this type. Therefore, in Germany, one hits upon the concept naturally to invent a glass mixture that the English come up with. Besides this, Dolland gives his telescopes two or three objective lenses that are positioned from each other only so far that they do not rub against each other. This widens not only the field of view but it also brings the object closer. If such a telescope has three objective lenses, then the outer most is convex on both sides according to a distinct measurement, the second is concave also according to a unequal measurement on both sides, and the third is convex on both sides and follows an equal measurement. Which sphere both of the first lenses are ground on for both sides is still a mystery to the Germans, however. The Dolland telescopes have the advantage at the same time that their objective lenses to not show colors. However that is enough about the optical instruments.Instead of these one imparts the narrative of the frog machine that is directly connected to the microscope and for which one therefore can assign no more convenient spot. As is common knowledge, the anatomician uses this machine in order to observe the circulation of the blood of a frog. The entire machine stands on three cast brass feet{Page 354}[Figure XLII abcd]. Each foot will be fastened with a hinge onto a brass half sphere [ac] that is exactly like the half sphere of a nut on the stand. (Page 312). The second brass half sphere [ef], one screws onto the former and both are surrounded by a sphere of brass. The tenon [f] of the sphere pierces the upper half sphere [ef]. This receives a bordering ring at [e] in order to impart steadiness to the hand when one screws the half sphere down tightly and the sphere is positioned fixedly. The manufacture of all of these pieces is elucidated by the finishing of the nut of the stand except for the bordering rim [e]. It will first be turned smooth like a cushion and the jagged slots will be stamped on the cushion with the garlanding iron [Figure XLV] on the lathe. The artisan saws a slot into the tenon [Figure XLII f] into which he places the plate [fg] like a clamp and fastens it with screws. The brass plate [fg] itself, he cuts like the form of a frog and gives it five frog hooks [hi] on one side. Four hooks hold the feet; the fifth, the throat of the frog. All of these hooks one must make from brass that is pointed and bend on one end since steel or iron would rust after the first experiment. Each hook is placed in the hole of a turned knob (button) [k] {Page 355}that one screws onto the plate [hg] with his small screws. The outstretched frog would pull on such a hook during his struggle however, if these were merely slid into the hole of the knobs mentioned above. Therefore the hole will be drilled out as wide so that a washer of flexible sheet brass has room at the same time and this encircles the hook. They project a few lines out from the hole of the knob [k] and the artisan cuts into the sheet in a few places so that it is will press precisely onto the hook and hold it fast due to its tension. Finally, he screws a small knob on the end [h] of each frog hook when the frog hook has already been secured. Between these five frog hooks, the plate has a rectangular hole [l] cut out and next to this are five smaller frog hooks that, discounting their size, look just like the former ones. The anatomician stretches out one part or another of the frog when he wants to look at it. The reader may now turn the machine around on its sphere in his mind, since this is the purpose of the sphere, until the other side of the plate [fg] is visible. This side is represented by [Figure XLIII]. The rectangular hole [l] mentioned above is visible once more and, next to this, a piece of metal [op] that, during the examination, bears a simple or compound fixed microscope. Therefore in the hole [o] a small {Page 356}screw piece is soldered in with soft solder on which one screws on the microscope and through the hole [l] the parts of the frog are observed. During such an examination, the anatomician must be able to adjust the microscope with the piece of metal [op] to all sides. The ordinary frog machine has the flaw that the piece of metal must be shifted back at [o] if one wants to move the microscope away from the plate so that the anatomician then looks into the hole [l] at an oblique angle. Therefore the local scientific instrument maker, Mr. Bennecke, hit upon the following alterations. He mortises a two inch long steel screw [Figure XLIV qr] onto the machine and fastens it with a nut [r]. The screw must have very fine screw threads. On this screw a turned brass casing [st] is placed that has screw threads on its inner opening and therefore can be moved on and off with a small screw knob at [s] on the screw [qr]. This casing bears, on its groove [t], the piece of metal [op] but not directly, but rather by means of a slide [Figure XLIII uv and XLIV uv]. The artisan sets the slide into the piece of metal [op] with a dove tail in such a manner that it can be pushed within a spacious opening of the piece of metal [op]. At [v] and [u] a small retaining spring of brass that grips on one end into the slot of the casing [st] rests on the slide and holds it tightly. In order that the piece of metal [op]{Page 357}does not wobble when one turns it in a circle, it will bear on a brass spring [Figure XLIII orp]. This spring will simply be pushed onto the screw [qr] and it can also be revolved. At [o] and [p], it has a slot in which the piece of metal [op] lies. One can thus rotate this piece of metal [op], moving it in the direction [op] and back, and finally, position the machine closer and further from it as well without changing its attitude. The most fully developed mathematical instruments are unquestionably those that one uses for astronomical observations. But what should one say about these instruments in the description of the work of the German scientific instrument maker? It certainly is a minute diminution of German artisans but one cannot be silent if one wants to come close to the truth that the German scientific instrument maker very rarely finds the opportunity to manufacture astronomical instruments. One equips the observatories of all regions with French and, particularly, with English instruments and there remains nothing for the German artisans other than that he must sometimes repair a damaged instrument of this type. With such a state of affairs one can say nothing further about these matters in Germany other than that the German artisans in most cases see how the English {Page 358}manufacture the astronomical instruments but that does not give him the opportunity to attain skill in this work. Hopefully he would come up to the English standard, when his trust is given to the astronomer, and his instruments' method of manufacture is gathered from him. One therefore refers the reader to the local astronomer, Monsieur Jean Bernoulli, Lettres Astronomiques from which one can become familiar with the most useful astronomical instruments and their improvements. From this writing, it is shown at the same time that in London many workers are occupied in the manufacture of the astronomical and optical instruments and that the English have a greater lead over the other nations in this occupation. It therefore was most efficient to fully survey the optical and astronomical instruments in a future volume.
Harold // 4:47 AM
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[BigBody]
Harold // 4:47 AM
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Instruments for PhysicsMany instruments for physics can be made for the physicist by any wood or iron worker and therefore one will only address those in whose manufacture the skill of the scientific instrument maker is indispensable. 1) The scientist cannot engage in various hydrostatic and other experiments without an accurate balance and one therefore will assign the first place to this mechanical machine. For the purpose at hand, the assay balance is the most useful of all since it{Page 359}shows the most minuscule differences in weight with precision. Therefore various scientists use this balance scale in their experiments in spite of the fact that they are made especially for the warden of the mints. However, before one can address the manufacture of this assay balance, a few preliminary details must be mentioned so that the reader can gain a closer understanding of the structure of this instrument. a) The parts of such a balance are: A ten or twelve inch long balance beam [Figure XLV ab] made of good dense forged steel. Over this, a saddle [c] is raised exactly in the center. The saddle will be covered in the illustration with its attached parts of the shafts and one therefore can represent it only through dashes. The perpendicular centerline of this saddle goes exactly through the centerpoint of the balance beam [ab] and, at this centerline, a small spindle or tenon [d] is fastened. The tenon rests on both pans or eyes of the shafts. It resembles a triangular prism and one will call it in the following text the point of support and both the points [a] and [b] are called the hanging points of the balance. The reason is that at each of these latter points a balance shell hangs on silken strings. Exactly at the center line stands a tongue [de] on the saddle that must be as long as possible for an assay balance so that they indicate the most minute disparity of weight. One tends to give it a length of about two-thirds of the {Page 360}balance beam. The tongue with its stand will be covered by the shafts [hi] on which the artisan attaches a pierced brass escutcheon for decoration on the front of an assay balance. This escutcheon has a circular opening through which one sees the tip ofthe tongue at [g]. However, because this must be very thin it thus carries a fine pearl [g] in order for its perpendicular position to be seen. The pearl in this case stands exactly below a second pearl [k] which is fastened to a fine rod on the shafts [hi]. Among the artisans, the rod with the pearl is called the indicator of equal weight. A delicate assay balance must be set in motion even by the must minute movement of the air. Therefore one hangs them in a small case of with glass windows. On the cover of this case, a hull is fastened in which a movable slide is placed that carries the balance. With a string that is joined to this slide and runs over three rollers, one raises the balance into the air. b) All accurate balances must have the following qualities: first, the balance beam must be made from a hard metal so that it will neither bend if one strains it with the load nor be upset by the changing of its burden. Second, the balance beam set into motion must play noticeably without pans and stand exactly horizontal when it{Page 361}is brought to rest again. This also applies when the pans are hung on the balance beam. Third, if the balance burdened with a load stands at equal weight, then it must not change its indication in the least if one switches the weight in the shells. Fourth, an accurate balance indicates if one takes away a very small weight in one pan or adds to it. A large precise balance with which weighs out gold in the counting house indicates a sixteenth of an ounce if they are burdened with a hundred marks on both sides. A shopkeeper's balance indicates one grain with a burden; a gold balance, a quarter grain when one weighs out a gold double Friedrich at the same time; and an assay balance must finally move out an eight of an inch if one gives an excess weight of only one one hundred and twenty eighth of a grain on one side. Each balance must not only indicate the excess weight mentioned for its type when no burden is placed in the pans but also if they are burdened with so much of a load that its balance beam can barely bear it without injury. This fourth quality of a balance the artisan achieves with the greatest effort. This is due to the fact that, if it is to achieve this quality, not only must both halves of the balance beam [da] and [db] be precisely the same length, but the artisan must also sharpen and harden the tenon [d] and both of the suspension points [a] and [b] with the greatest precision. Friction makes it necessary that one sharpen the tenon and{Page 362}suspension points most precisely and they must be hardened so that the sharp edges are not easily worn off or displaced. The latter applies also to the bearings of the shafts since the tenon [d] cuts into a soft bearing. This fourth quality also makes it of the greatest importance to the artisan to adjust, or justify, the balance with the utmost care. From this sensitivity of the balance, it finally results that the balance pans should not stand where one can push them. c) The sensitivity of the balance rests not only on the justification, however, but also on the burden on the point of support [d] and the two suspension points [a] and [b]. With the oldest and worst balances both of the suspension points [a] and [b] begin below the centerline of the balance beam. Here one understands the centerline to be the horizontal line that is drawn through the point of support [d]. Leupold has already shown, however, that a balance is much more sensitive if all three points lie in the centerline. The newer artisans go even further and raise both of the points of suspension [a] and [b] above the centerline. Which positioning of these three points imparts the most sensitivity can be observed from the following experiment that the local artisan Mr. Gniser, who only manufactures balances, employed in the presence of the author. For this experiment, he took a precise gold balance, with which{Page 363}one could weigh out one Mark without damage to the balance beam. He raised the cup bearers [a] and [b] into which the suspension points are attached, let this position itself over and below the centerline by means of a perpendicular screw at [k] and [i]. Three screw threads of this screw amount to exactly one line (twelfth of an inch). When the bearer [ak] and [bl] stand two lines below the centerline, then one could securely position with and without a load of one grain in a balance cup without it being indicated by the balance. The tongue stands up precisely when the distance would be diminished somewhat from the point of support on one side. If the bearers [ak] and [ib] mentioned above stand on the centerline, then the balance indicates a quarter grain with and without a load; if they stand a line (twelfth of an inch) above the centerline, then the balance gives an indication of one sixteenth grain and at one and a half lines over the centerline, it indicates a thirty-secondth of a grain. In both of the latter cases, a small distortion of a point of suspension was somewhat noticeable during the weighing-out. If the points of suspension are positioned more than one and a half lines over the centerline, then it is difficult to adjust and justify a balance. One can employ this test still more accurately with a balance whose tenon [d] besides can be shifted perpendicularly by a screw, and the points of suspension [a] and [b] can be shifted horizontally by means of a screw. d) The artisans of the past gave their assay balances a heavy tongue [Figure XLVI de] in order to press the tongue of the balance by the load{Page 364}with the most minute excess weight added. Balances of this type have the flaw, however, that they move with the slightest motion of air, which the owner can produce by his breath, often not on the side of the excess weight but they weigh on the opposite side. Therefore the local artisan, Mr. Gniser, makes the tongue as thin as possible and in contrast gives the balance beam [ab] a lower ballast following the advice of a few local scholars. He leaves a piece of metal standing during the forging below the centerline of the balance beam whose thickness is increased below the balance itself.This preface already contains the most important ideas that are to be noted regarding the manufacture of a balance, excepting a few processes that one must finally attach. The balance beam [Figure XLVI] will be forged from good steel according to the measure of a pattern and, at the same time, measured in the rough with a compass. The artisan sometimes during this measuring must draw in approximation for the heat expands the body. It makes no difference whether one uses English, Solingen, of Steiermark steel for this if he makes it as hard as possible. One strikes off a piece of the steel before the forging and if its fracture is blue and grainy and the magnifying glass shows no exfoliation on the metal as well, then the {Page 365}steel can be used for this application. This is due to the fact that a balance beam of a precise assay balance must have voids as small as possible if the weather is not to work against the metal. Therefore the artisan welds it as densely as possible. In order to confine the brittle steel during the forging so that it does not break apart, one wraps it with a thin iron wire before forging it. During the finishing of the balance beam, the file removes the iron. For this purpose, the artisan tests the balance beam with an artificial magnet to see when he can hang it on its peg. He strokes one arm of the balance beam with the magnet. If the balance beam takes on a magnetism and shows a movement then it is not forged together tightly enough and he must discard it as unusable. The forged balance beam, the artisan finishes most accurately with the file but without all the decoration since in these dust and dirt can easily become fastened that could impart an unequal weight to one of the arms of the balance beam. After the use of the file, he measures the balance beam for accuracy with a hair compass and in doing this defines the point of support [d] and both of the points of suspension [a] and [b]. Both of the latter rise one and a half lines above the centerline for an assay balance. At the point of support [d], he drills a hole with great precision {Page 366}through the balance beam and pops in a densely forged steel peg. Through each holder [ak] and [bl], he drills two perpendicular holes next to each other in such a manner that between both, a thin pieces of metal remains and this, he must file as sharp as possible just like the edge of the tenon [d]. A few artisans harden these points before the justification. However, they produce not only trouble by this means, but they can also not give the balance total precision since the file does not remove anything from the hardened steel. At this point, the forged shafts [hi] and the tongue [gd] will be finished with the file. If the balance is to receive an escutcheon of engraved sheet brass, then two steel pans that one calls eyes on an assay balance will be inlaid into which the tenon of the axle [d] runs. The tongue [gd] the artisan screws into the saddle [c] but precisely at the centerline. He possesses a very simple instrument with which he tests the perpendicular position of the tongue. On a small trestle [Figure XLVII ab] lies an iron ring [cd] that, not only can rotate by means of its tenons [a] and [e], but can shift back and forth in a slot of both feet [af] and [eb], in the direction [af]. One can position the ring fixedly with a nut at [a] and [e], however. The ring is divided into four equal sections by four thin pieces of metal [ae] and [cd] that one cuts from a clock spring.{Page 367}If one places the balance beam on the piece of metal [ae] and the tongue covers one of the halves of the piece of metal [cd] then this naturally stands perpendicular on the balance beam at [Figure XLVI gda and gdb]. It also must not bend toward either of the other possible directions, however. In order to test the tongue in this case, one places the balance beam in the slot [Figure XLVI fb] of a board, sets the tongue against the piece of metal [ae] precisely, and lets the ring [cd] slowly lower down. One sees easily that the tongue bends if it is not exactly straight. The artisan now hangs the balance beam with the tongue on its shafts and tests whether both halves [ad] and [db] of the balance beam are of equal weight. The flaws he corrects by taking off a bit depending on the state of affairs. Next, he hangs the cups on and tests with and without a burden, partly whether the balance beam is of equal length, partly whether the balance shows noticeably the one hundred twenty-eighth part of a grain. If both of the arms of the balance beam are a bit unequal then he can correct the flaw if he shifts one or the other of the points of suspension [a] or [b] with a pointed oil stone a little bit. Noticeable flaws, he corrects by the axle [d] that he shims with small pieces of metal. If the balance is still not sensitive enough, then he must sharpen the axle [d] and the points of suspension [a] and [b] still more finely, or, if need be, raise the latter points a little bit further above the centerline.{Page 368}One easily sees, that the justification of a balance requires effort, time, and caution, especially if the points of suspension are raised noticeably above the centerline. Because, if these points are below the centerline, then it is a small matter to adjust the balance because such a balance does not show small maladjustments of a small excess weight. Finally, the sharp edges and bearings of the shafts must be hardened to glass hardness, but the other parts must be hardened to spring hardness. The steel becomes glass hard when one simply quenches it from red heat in water. A spring hardness (temper) one gives it, however, if one places it in water or oil at red heat, coats it with tallow or olive oil, and holds it in the fire until the tallow of the oil burns completely. One finally quenches it again in water or oil. The spring tempered beam does not bend under a load and the shafts have this same hardness so they close precisely onto the balance beam. The pans [e] and [f] will be stamped from sheet silver, turned, and adjusted with the file according to the assay balance. In each pan, there is an indented or acorn cup in order to take out small pieces during the weighing from these pans.The weights that belongs to an assay balance must be divided into very small parts since the warden assays only very small metal pieces. If one wants to assay as one does at a mine,{Page 369}according to an assay hundredweight, then one such assay hundredweight usually weighs one dram. At the mint, the warden sets the assay with silver according to an assay mark normally, that is four times lighter than an assay hundredweight. It thus weighs one sixteenth of an ounce reckoned by the normalCologne weight. The smaller parts of such an assay Mark, the warden gives the name which the ordinary weight has in use. Therefore, half of an assay Mark is called eight ounces; a quarter is called four ounces; an eighth is called two ounces; and a sixteenth, an ounce. An ounce will be divided into grains and the assay weights have nine grain, six grain, three grain, two grain, one grain, a half a grain and a quarter grain. All of these weights up to two grains will be made from cupellated sheet silver according to a precision assay balance, the latter weights though will be made from fine silver wire. One takes a piece of the finest silver wire that weighs two grains precisely, divides this with a hair compass into two equal pieces, and by this means receives two pieces of wire that weigh one grain. If one proceeds with this type of division then a half grain and a quarter grain result. The largest assay weight with which one weighs out gold while assaying is just one thirty-secondth of an ordinary ounce in weight. Such a weight represents a Mark of gold or twenty four carats and one divides these into further carats and each carat into half and quarter grains.{Page 370}With these weights, the warden weighs out the gold and silver grains that he has driven from the cupola. However, he must also at times define with a precise gold balance how many pieces of a mint go into an ordinary Cologne Mark as well. (weight of coin). In this case he uses a weight that is called a standard penny. The heaviest weight of the standard penny weighs one Cologne Mark, or half a pound. This weight, he divides by his calculation into 65,536 equal parts and the lightest weight of this type is thus one sixty five thousand five hundred thirty sixth of a Cologne Mark which weighs about one sixteenth of a grain. For this reason, a grain is nearly as heavy as a grain of the standard penny. The usual weights of the standard penny will be cast from cupellated silver in rectangular pieces and will be filed down with the assistance of a precise balance accurately.2) With the aid of the foregoing description, one can now survey the balance scale [Figure XLVIII] of the physicist with little effort. The steel balance beam [ab] commonly tends to be two feet long, one inch broad, and 4 lines thick, and each foot will be divided into its whole and quarter parts when the balance beam is finished to the same strength throughout with the file. This beam fits precisely into a brass casing [cd] that is only dotted in the illustration since it is surrounded by a somewhat longer brass casing [ef]. Both casings one tends to call the {Page 371}box of the balance. The outer box [ef] closes precisely onto the inner box [cd] but its inner opening is a bit higher than the casing [cd]. The latter casing can thus be slid back and forth with the balance beam [ab] in the direction [fg]. At the end a screw [h] is added, whose tip is fastened in the innermost box with a swivel that has its nut in the uppermost piece of metal [eg] of the outermost box. This and the inner box will be bent together on a rectangular mandrel from sheet brass and their ends will be soldered together. On the outer box [ef], a sharp axis [n] will be screwed on each side in such a manner that both axes project exactly opposite from one another. Aided by these axes, the balance beam rests on its support [ik] that is assembled from a fork [i], and a wooden foot [k]. On the tip of one of the axles, the rectangular hole of a tongue [l] is slid on and fastened with a nut. Next to this tongue, a protractor [klm] is fastened in such a manner that its centerpoint comes to lie precisely under the peg (heart nail) of the balance beam. It follows that the tongue cuts across the ninety degree mark of the protractor at its perpendicular position. The balance beam [ab] simply receives two hooks of brass wire. The artisan screws on both at an equal distance from the ends [a] and [b] on the{Page 372}balance beam. From the description, it is revealed that one can position the balance beam over the resting point [n] with the screw [h]. Because this allows the balance beam [ab] to be shifted back and forth in the direction [ab] in the casing [cd] as well, the owner can also change the distance from the resting point. Therefore, over each axle [n] on both boxes is a slot, in order to gauge in which whole or quarter inch the balance beam rests. 3) The pyrometer [Figure XLIX] not only heats a piece of metal, rather it must indicate at the same time how much the metal has expanded also. The metal bar will be fastened during this test in a box [ab] that one best makes from copper sheet since brass is easily subjectded to alteration in the fire. The artisan has the box made by a coppersmith. At [c] he attachs a casing with a small positioning screw and at [d] he punches a hole through the metal. The largest of these holes adjusts for the size of the metal bars that one will heat in the box since it also appears in the illustration so that one end of the bar [cd] is placed in the casing [c] and the other is in the hole [d]. The size of this bar [dc] depends on the desire of the owner, but they must not be too small if the expansion is to be noticeable. At [d], such a metal bar{Page 373}projects from the box. The scientist commonly has bars of silver, copper, brass, iron, steel, and tin manufactured, that are about the same size and must be at least one foot long. In the metal box they pour a spirit whose flame heats the metal bars. A few allow a further piece of metal to be inlaid below the bar [dc] that is pierced and the spirit is separated from the metal bars. Others regard this piece of metal as a superfluous item. But which measurement should the scientist apply with the pyrometer through which he could find out how much a heated metal bar has expanded? Manifold contrivances of this type are not wanting, but the simplest appear to be those that measure off the expansion along a normal scale of length. On a small wooden foot [ef], one can fasten a piece of metal [dg] that is one inch long and divided into 100 smaller parts by transfer lines. The use of this can easily be inferred.4) Among the most substantial instruments of physics unquestionably is the air pump [Figure L]. Admittedly the Smeaton air pump is the most highly developed but, at this time, it has never been manufactured by an artisan in Berlin. Therefore, one has chosen the one that the local instrument maker, Mr. Eickner has made following the specifications of Mr. Hoffrath Lieberkuehn. With such an air pump {Page 374}two brass cylinders [ab] of the same size are at once apparent, that are twelve to fourteen inches high and two inches broad throughout. Their metal thickness must measure at least two lines. The artisan has an iron cylinder of mandrel forged that he turns down precisely on the lathe according to the inner diameter of the next brass cylinder. The thick cut sheet brass from which the hollow cylinder is to result and that therefore will be placed around the mandrel with the hammer, he must therefore beforehand make more malleable by annealing. Both of the joined ends of the brass plate that has been bent round do not overlap but just butt together precisely and from this the solder joint results. The artisan takes the brass cylinder off of the mandrel, covers the solder joint with spelter solder in the usual manner, and solders the cylinder on the coals. However he does not solder it with silver solder as some believe but with the hardest brass solder. It is not possible to solder such a large piece at one time so precisely that a few defects do not remain in the solder joint and these the artisan repairs with an easy flowing silver solder. He would remove this material to solder the brass most securely if he soldered the cylinder at the start with silver solder. The local instrument maker, Mr. Ring, has risked having{Page 375}the cylinder cast from brass with good result. The thickness of metal of the cast cylinder must be only as thick as the beaten one. One may either cast the cylinder or solder it together from brass plate. Then it must be work hardened on the mandrel as much as possible. It is just as common to have it bored out on the boring machine of the gunsmith (Volume 7, page 137) and afterward is emeried out. The boring bit can leave rings behind inthe hollow cylinder and these will be completely removed by the emery. The artisan emeries the hollow metal cylinder with a wooden cylinder or piston that fits comfortably into the hollow cylinder of brass with great care. The brass cylinder he fastens in his vice and covers the piston with powdered pumice or emery and olive oil. The latter will be moved with a rod but, not in a circle, but one just pushes it into the brass cylinder and pulls it back out instead. The reason is that he must rub out all the rings of the boring bit. The artisan moves the piston more in the center that at both openings of the hollow cylinder since, even with great care, it frequently happens that he widens the openings more than the center. Therefore he chooses a wooden cylinder that is a little shorter that the metal cylinder as well. On the upper end [a] of the cylinder one merely slides{Page 376}on a cast and turned case cover that keeps all dust out of the cylinder. A toothed rod runs through a filed-out hole of this cover. On the lowest opening [b], however, a solid cast screw piece will be soldered on with soft solder. From this piece a six sided cushion (nut) projects on which the owner places a screw key if he wants to take the cylinder off. Before it is soldered on, this screw piece receives screw threads on its outer circumference since the cylinder will be screwed onto a hollow screw ring [Figure LI cd] by means of this piece [b]. The ring [dc] one casts solid and turns it down. Internally, it receives flat threads for the sake of holding power, as does the screw piece on its exterior. In addition, it should be mentioned that one cuts all the screws of the air pump on the lathe. Of the screw piece [Figure L b] and the screw ring [Figure LI bc] there is this to remembered as well; namely, that the latter will be rubbed into the first with emery a little bit (Page 321) so that the owner can take it off without difficulty. When both pieces are finished and the screw piece [Figure L b] is soldered on then the instrument maker turns the cylinder at the same time with the screw piece [b]. He cannot move so large a piece with his foot on his ordinary lathe. Therefore, in this case, he must make use of the lathe of the bronze founder and pewterer.
Harold // 4:46 AM
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{Page 377}The form of the base piece the reader will gather from [Figure LI]. It will be cast solid and finished with the file. Beneath the floor of the base piece two projecting ridges result from the casting which project from the base plate one inch high and one inch broad. They are indicated by dashes in the illustration at [cd] and [gh]. Both ridges will be hollowed out with a borer since they join the cylinder with each other and this to the communication tube. The artisan drills into the ridge at [d] with a bit but does not drill the hole at [c] completely through. The opening [d] of the drilled hole he stops up again with a countersunk and soldered screw. In the same manner, he bores the groove [gh] up to the groove [dc] and stops up the opening at [g] in the manner mentioned above. The ring [dc] will be soldered onto the base piece and the artisan must turn a groove corresponding to the size of each ring on the lathe since each ring he slides onto a ridge. It is difficult on move such a large piece on the lathe, since at times one side causes a strong oscillation when one is turning the other of the ridges mentioned. The artisan must therefore apply a counter weight on the latter side. On each screw ring [dc] there lie two valves [i] and [k], since a single valve in the centerpoint of this ring would be affected too strongly by the in rushing air. One such valve is nothing other than a{Page 378}small screw piece [m] with a throat [Figure LII l] on top. The instrument maker hollows it in its centerline [o] with a drill bit but so that this hole only extends up to [p] on the throat. On the upper surface of the throat [o], he drills along the hole of various smaller holes in a sieve-like fashion and this arrangement has the advantage over others that the dirt the influx cannot harm the valve's membrane. For this reason, a piece of a cow's bladder will be stretched out on the upper surface [p] of the throat and fastened with a thread in the slot beneath the throat. One chooses a cow's bladder for this that does not flake away and softens it in water prior to using it. The piece of bladder must be cut length wise into a rectangle so that it does not completely cover the surface [p] on two sides. By this means, one give the air space to pass out of the bell into the cylinder. For each valve, the artisan drills a hole up to the groove [dc] in the base piece [Figure LI] and gives these holes screw threads corresponding to the measurement of the valves with a tap. A disk of Russia leather, which bars the escape of the air, comes to lie beneath each valve as well as between the screw piece [Figure L b] and its screw [Figure LII cd].In the hollow of each cylinder [Figure L ab], a stamp (embolus) is placed that fits very precisely. A brass cast cone [Figure LII qs] receives a projecting disk at [q]. Its lower surface [s] will be turned like a screw {Page 379}and the artisan screws a valve [lm] into this hollow which is exactly like the one mentioned above. The screw threads of all of the valves of the air pump will be cut at this point, so that one can screw the valve into its nut on both ends. This small circumstance provides the convenience that the future owner can compress with the air pump. At [q] the artisan drills a hole i the cone [gs] up to the valve which allows the air to exit. The stamp must close precisely, as mentioned, into its hollow cylinder into which it is placed. This can not be expected from the hard metal and therefore the artisan slides as many disks or rings of leather [tu] onto the stamp until the entire space between the disk [g] and a screw [v] is filled. The screw [v] will be screwed on the stamp in front of the valve [s] and it presses all the leather rings together tightly. The leather will be cut from Russia leather. A few artisans seek to make this leather more flexible so the they cook it in tallow or oil. Others presume, however, not without plausibility, that, partly, the small fibers that must close together burn, and, partly, that in the leather filled with tallow cannot draw in the grease with which one sometimes lubricates the air pump. For this grease, one uses two parts water and one part olive oil. The leather disks will finally be brought to the lathe with the stamp{Page 380}and are turned corresponding to the hollow of the cylinder precisely. The toothed rod [w] will be fastened on the cylinder with a screw stick but in such a manner that it has a bit of air at [w]. This makes it easier to move. The rods will be cast from brass, the teeth will be practically divided according to an arbitrary number and cut with a file. At the top, this bar must be fastened in a fixed position so that it can suitably grip the gear. It will therefore be fastened by a cover [xy] that the artisan either casts from brass or has made from wood by a sculptor. Such a cover consists of two halves that one assembles with screws and their nuts when the tooth rod [w] has already been set in. Next to each rod, a small cylinder of cast and turned brass is placed which reduce the friction. Both bars will be set in motion by a common gear. At best one assembles this gear from two brass disks with the help of a few steel rods. The rods grip the teeth of the tooth bars during the movement. The disks of such a gear must carry over the tooth rods along their entire breadth and thus they hold this bar completely tight so that they do not wobble.One now hurries back to the base piece [cf] in order to illustrate the assembly of the cylinder [Figure L ab]{Page 381}with the plate with the aid of the communication tube. Above the groove [Figure LI gh] a thick cast and drilled out cylinder [Figure L beta gamma] is soldered into the base piece. In the opening of this cylinder [gamma] the artisan mortises the communication tube and fastens it with a cast hidden screw that he slides on to the communication tube and it screws onto the cylinder [gamma]. This screw holds the air back from the lower opening of the communication tube. The communication tube will be of beaten sheet brass bend around a mandrel and soldered together as well as possible with hard spelter solder. If a flaw is found in the soldering seam after the soldering then it must be carefully repaired with silver solder. One fills the tube with molten lead bends it into a curve when the lead is cold and melts the lead out of the bent brass tube again after the bending. On the upper end of the communication tube [gamma, eighth note], the instrument maker mortises in a casing that sits on a cast and turned ring. This ring surrounds a thick cast cylinder on a finished air pump that stands under the plate of the air pump and the parts of this cylinder must finally be dissected.On a wooden disk of the stand rests a brass plate [symbols unidentified] that is assembled from a brass plate and a perpendicular ring. The brass base of the plate,{Page 382}which has a diameter of about ten inches, will be cut from a brass sheet and turned round on a lathe. The visible surfaces of this base on which the recipient stands, the artisan polishes with a smooth plane disk PLANSCHEIBE that is cast from tin and lead, aided by emery and olive oil until it is completely smooth. The perpendicular ring, he solders together from thick sheet brass with spelter solder according to the size of the disk, and with soft solder he solders it when it is turned on the turned groove of the base. The plate receives from the turning a hole in its centerpoint and through this, the hollow bored cylinder [] mentioned above is placed. The part of the cylinder [nu], that rises above the plate receives screw threads at the lathe. The casting gives this cylinder below the screw [nu] a thick disk on which the plate will be soldered with soft solder. Next to the disk sits a thick rectangular peg and both will be sunk into the wood of the stand. Below the wooden disk on which the plate rests, the artisan pulls on the cylinder [nu, unidentified] and, at the same time, the plate with a strong hexagonal nut and, by this means, presses the teller tightly against the disk of the stand. Nest to this hexagonal nut lies a ring of Russia leather and below this the ring [eighth note] of the communication tube is slid onto the cylinder [nu, unidentified]. It can easily be perceived, that the opening [eighth note] of{Page 383}the communication tube must close on a horizontally bored hole of the cylinder [nu, unidentified] and that this hole just extends to the inner cavity of this cylinder. The communication tube must be sealed on every side very well so that no air can leak through. Therefore a disk of russia leather comes to lie not only over but also under its ring [eighth note] and all three pieces, both leather rings and the metal ring [eighth note] will be pressed together with a second hexagonal nut [chi]. This and the former nut,the artisan has cast hollow and cuts their internal screw threads as well the requisite screw threads of the cylinder [nu, unidentified] on the lathe. Beneath the latter nut, a cock [delta mu] in which a further swivel [mu] sits, is placed in the cylinder [nu, unidentified]. The cock (spigot) is cast, turned, and emerged into its conically bored hole of the cylinder [nu, unidentified]. (Page 321) The instrument maker drills through the cock partly according to the measure of the opening of the cylinder [nu, unidentified] a perpendicular hole, and partly also a horizontal hole. Aided by the perpendicular hole, the owner can place the mercury tube under the cylinder [nu, unidentified] with the empty space under the bell in combination, at the same time, this connection can be cut off again. This is the reason that the opening of the cylinder [nu, unidentified] is sealed when the handle [mu] of the spigot stands horizontal {Page 384}but is open when it is vertical. In the horizontally bored hole of the spigot a small cast swivel [mu] will be emerged in. When one pulls this swivel out then the outer air presses again into the airless receptacle. In the lowest opening [] of the cylinder [nu, unidentified], the artisan finally screws in a small screw into which a mercury tube will be cemented with shellac. This glass tube extends into a container filled with mercury which stands in a small capsule of sheet brass next to the base piece [ef]. All of the parts of the air pump will be well polished which goes without saying.Of the manifold apparati of the air pump, one chose only the most important parts since many do not belong to the work of the instrument maker. The bell of the receptacle must close precisely on the thick disk of buck skin leather which lies on the plate [] of the air pump. Therefore the instrument maker polishes its lower rim on an iron face plate with sand as smooth as is possible. Other receptacles have an open throat [Figure L] on top that is enclosed by a casing [] of soldered together sheet brass. The artisan cements the sheet with a cement of shellac and turpentine onto the glass. The upper opening of the receptacle one seals with a plate of metal that lies on a piece of leather. In the centerpoint of this disk{Page 385}a brass wire [] is placed in a hole that is lined with leather. Among the most important parts of the air pump is the GERICKSCHEN half spheres [Figure LIII]. The artisan indents them out from a thick brass plate in the rough with the hammer, and sets a cast mounting in the opening [a] of each half sphere with silver solder. He turns both half spheres internally and externally and by this means gives both the mountings of the half spheres a groove. So that they fit precisely into each other, he emeries the one groove into the other carefully. (Page 321) In on of the half spheres he drills a hole into which he solders a cast tube [b] that receives a spigot with silver solder. The opening of this tube receives screw threads in order that the half sphere can be screwed onto the screw [] of the air pump [Figure L a]. In the center of each half sphere a tenon will be soldered on with spelter solder onto which one will fasten an iron ring [c] with a strong rivet.5) The hollow cylinder [ab] of a compression machine [Figure LIV], the artisan cuts from a thick brass plate as well, solders and finishes it with the cylinder of the air pump. It would be a needless operation if he has emerged it out. In the opening [bc] he solders a ring with silver solder that he has{Page 386}given screw threads externally beforehand. The reason for this is on such a ring a second cast ring will be screwed on so that this is removed a bit above the cylinder [ab]. Both screws fasten a thick glass disk. On the other side [a] of the cylinder [ab] a thicker cast base will be screwed on. If the cylinder is only small then one screws it during compression onto the screw [] of the air pump [Figure L]. It receives then a tube with a spigot like the half spheres mentioned above. If the cylinder is over eight inches long, then such a heavy piec of brass would burden the air pump. Therefore one solders a thick ring [Figure LIV de] of brass on around the cylinder with soft solder on which a hollow cylinder is soldered with spelter solder at [e] instead of the spigot. On this cylinder one screws a small pump that the artisan makes exactly like the cylinder of the air pump. Finally, the compression machine receives yet another spigot [c] that prevents the escape of the compressed air.6) It is difficult to get a sphere from the glass mill that is completely round for the Electric machine [Figure L] and it is coupled with the danger of attaching such a sphere on the machine. Therefore many choose a glass disk instead of the sphere. The artisan has this disk [ab] cut round from the{Page 387}thickest mirror glass by a glass cutter and drills a hole in its centerpoint. Its face, he must grind himself, however to complete roundness on a polishing mill. When he has placed the glass disk on the spindle of the electric machine then he cements a disk of sheet brass [c] on each side of the glass disk with shellac and turpentine. He mixes this cement from five parts of fine shellac and one part turpentine. Each sheet metal disk [c] will be joined beforehand with a strong iron casing [d] with the aid of spelter solder. A positioning screw fastens this casing [d] on the spindle and with the casing [d] and its disks [c] the instrument maker adjusts the glass disk to a vertical position. Below the glass disk he has tow wooden slides [e] and [f] set in on the frame with a dove tail. One each slide he fastens a spring of sheet brass [g] and both springs press a cushion that is stuffed with hair against the glass disk. The cushions, one tends to wrap with gold paper. The owner can position these springs with the aid of the slides [e] and [f] against the glass disk while experimenting and each slide is fastened with a wood screw. Next to the glass disk stands a glass tube [hi] that is cemented below into a brass casing [i] with shellac and turpentine. In just the same manner, the artisan also fastens the brass casing on the tube [hi]. In this casing,{Page 388}a rod of brass wire [kb] can be shifted that holds a fork of flexible sheet brass. This fork presses a few leaves of brass yarn against the glass disk. The arrangement of the frame and the mechanisms depends on the tastes of the owner.7) Finally one must address a few words to how the artisan charges the natural magnet stone. He places the stone in a light wooden boat on the water and discovers by this means the north pole of the magnet. On each pole he bends a piece of soft iron around the stone so that the pole will be indicated by a projecting tenon. If the stone hs noticeably uneven spots, then he grinds these off on a sand stone and joins the two iron plates with binding string. Around the iron he sews together either leather or he wraps the stone with a capsule of sheet brass in such a way that the pole tenons project.AFTERWORDThat the instrument maker is an artisan hardly bears repeating. This notwithstanding he knows nothing of the trades practice of the ordinary professions. He learns his trade in six years. In Berlin, there are now established four artisans, Mr. Ring, Mr. Bennecke, Mr. Koch, Mr. Eickner.
Harold // 4:45 AM
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Monday, December 03, 2001:

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------TRADES AND ARTS The Spur Maker Trades and Arts [Handwerke und Kuenste] Volume 6 Section 3The Spur MakerI. Contents. In the workshop of the spur maker, usually nothing more is made other than the pieces of iron required for riding-equipage, spurs, riding bits, stirrups, and curry combs. Most of the time he forges and works all of these things using the techniques of the locksmith. II. His materials can be recited in a few words, since they are all familiar from the former chapters. He can only purchase the softest and most malleable Swedish iron since he would expose the customer to the rath of his horse if he was to deliver riding equipage made of brittle and friable iron. For curry combs he also works sheet iron made from Swedish iron. With the strong vinegar ESSIG and salt he etchs his work, before he tins them with English tin and talc TALCH. That he uses smiths' coal in his forge goes without saying.III. Most of the tools he also has in common with the locksmith. To these belong the forge, the smiths' anvil, the beak iron, the hammer and the tongs for forging and files of all types. Meanwhile a few individual situations in his work require a few special tools.A. A few spur makers let three or four indentations resembling hollow cylinders of various sizes be hollowed out on one side of their smiths' anvil in order to smooth both round or half round iron in them. On the others, in contrast, there is only a rectangular hole on the face of the anvil into which the tang of a small swage can be placed on whose face the indentations considered are found.B. The top die KAPPENSTEMPEL [Plate II Figure I] is a swage and it therefore also consists of two parts like the swage of the locksmith. The foundation (bottom swage) 1. is a round piece of steel about two inches broad and half as thick that has on its hace a hollow resembling a half sphere. Its tang can be placed in the hole of the smiths' anvil. The round face of a hammer 2. fits into the hollow mentioned. With both pieces, each half of a hollow mouthpiece of a riding bit will be bent into a curved shape (KRUMM GEBOGEN).C. The mouth piece hole iron MUNDSTUECKLOCHEISEN likewise consists of two pieces, of a bottom part Figure II 1 and a punch 2. The rectangular bottom part has a longitudinal rectangular slot that is only a few fractions of an inch STRICHE deep and into this the lower end of the punch fits precisely that must have no edge but in contrast must have a narrow surface with sharp edges. The use (of this) will be revealed below.D. The mouth piece iron MUNDSTUECKEISEN Figure III consists of two rectangular halves that form a round and curved hole (a) in the middle when they are placed together. The spur maker holds the bent mouth piece of a riding bit tightly in the vice with this when he wants to join it to the bar STANGE. E. The chisel STECHEISEN Figure IV is a broad chisel MEISEL with a tang onto which one holds it tightly in the vice. On the edge of this chisel are a few dull notchs into which the links of the foam chain SCHAUMKETTEN will be bent and then be cut off on the edge. F. The corer (borer) KERNER is nothing but a drift with a sharp point with which one pre punches before a hole is punched with a sharp drift. Figure V 2. Another borer has a dull tip 2 and one widens each side of a punched hole with this where the head of a rivet will be countersunk.G. THe rectangular AUFTREIBEISEN Figure VI has a few holes in its face into which the spur maker places the throat of a spur when he wants to drive the cut up sides SCHENKEL from each other. One also makes a few half round indentations in which to shape the sides of the spur half round at the same time. Indeed the spur maker also has special swages Figure VII for this on which likewise the indentations mentioned are found. H. For the manufacture of buckles on the spurs, the spur maker possesses a buckle hole tool Figure VIII. On the face of a rectangular piece of steel 1 two rectangular holes are found. The one hole (a) has a arbitrary size, the other (b) is measured off however according to the size of the opening of the one half of the buckle. It is known, that the buckle of a spur has two such opening between which a narrow piece of iron is found on which the tongue is fastened. One opening is rectangular the other is half round. If the rectangular opening is to be cut out with a buckle hole tool then the hole (b) must likewise be rectangular; in contrast, half round though(?). The die 2 is a right angled arm of steel that has two tenons underneath. The tenon (c) is only begun with its hole 1a therefore so that the die does not displace. THe tenon (d) must have a sharp edge on the right because the it cuts out the opening in the buckle when one hits on the die at (e) with a hammer. A few spur makers have a buckle hole tool, with which they can strike both openings in the buckle at the same time. Then there is yet another half round hole beneath the hole 1b and between both (there is) a narrow piece of iron so that the narrow strip of the buckle results that holds the tongue. Only the narrow piece of iron between the rectangular and the half round holes breaks out easily during use and therefore most of the spur makers strike each opening of the buckle with a special buckle hole tool.J. The most ingenious tool of the spur maker is unquestionably the curry comb cutting iron STRIEGELHAUEISEN Figure IX. Both of the feet ab and cd are tapered underneath in order to fasten the instrument on a block during use. They will be held together above by a half inch broad rod of iron ac because the hole tool is made of iron. Another rod ik rests over this rod on a support gh at a distance of approximately one inch parallel to the latter and both rods pierce through two knives il, km in just such a manner that they can be moved in thier holes back and forth. Over the rod ac each knife has a catch ABSATZ on both sides through which the lower part that is allowed to shift back and forth in the rod ac becomes a bit thinner. Likewise just this part is somewhat narrower also than the one above or to put it another way, the upper part projects out a few fractions of an inch at n and o. This projecting cutting edge has the triangular form of the space between two curry comb teeth at n and o. Figure X presents the knife separately and everything will be made clear by means of the additional letters. Under each knife there opens a steel spring Figure IX lpm which is screwed onto the block cf at m. On each side of the knife there is another spring, the guide WEISER, that is bend back from its knife as far as the extent of the breadth of a tooth of the curry comb and of the gap that follows it. The tip of the guide is triangular as well, like the gap between two teeth. The first tooth till be filed in the piece of metal from which the curry comb will arise. The spur maker sets the opening in front of the filed tooth onto the tip of the guide uq, so that the tooth and the opening on the other side of the tooth comes to lie between the guide and the knife, and he strikes on the knife il at i with a hammer. The triangular edge at n by this means cuts another triangular opening out by which means a new tooth results and the spring lpm again drives the knife back up. He catchs the next opening onto th tip of the guide nq, strikes again onto the knife and continues in like manner until all the teeth are cut. The guide nq has the purpose that all teeth will be spaced from each other equally at all times and willbe of like size; without it the spur maker would have to measure them off in a tiresome manner. One uses this instrument though only for (government) commissioned work, and the teeth of fine curry combs will be cut out with the file. A few spur makers have other small cutting tools with separate knives on the end. The spring lpm is then forged with the rod ac from one piece and bent against the knife. This will be fastened into the vice during use but they are not as durable as the former. (s) is the screw key that belongs to the curry comb cutting iron.IV. The products of the spur maker have already been listed in this chapter and their manufacture shall now be explained as well. A. The most important piece of riding equipage is the riding bit REITSTANGE for a bridle. It is imprtant to make the reader familiar with the parts of a bit and the names from the outset. The major parts are the two bars themselves Figure XI ab, the mouth piece cde, the curb chain fg, and the foam chain SCHAUMKETTE hi. With the bars themselves theere are yet a few names yet to benoted. ac and ae are called the main frame HAUPTGESTELLE, which have a hole (a) on their tip into which the reins of the bridle will be buckled. The foam chain will be fastened into a small round hole at f and g. The holes c and e are called Mouth piece holes or rings and cb and eb are called the shanks. On the tip of the latter ther is a large opening at b however. It is called the hasp UEBERWURF into which the swivel is fastened at b that carries the rein ring. The mouth piece cde consists of two equal-sized cone-shaped halves that are joined at d. To this end, one half has a hole and the other has a GEWINDE or a tenon that is bent into the hole. From this point, one will use this nomenclature in the description of various types of bits that are most frequently used in this region.a) The German bits always have a flat main frame Figure XI ac, ae and commonly have a hollow mouth piece cde along with a pear-shaped hasp b, with a swivel and rein ring. In a few, the shnks are sharply bent; on others only slightly and others have straight shanks thatare just as flat as the main frame, and also continue with this in a straight line. This latter one calls a gelding bridle-bit WALLACHENKANDAREN. On the whole, there is still to be mentioned about the bent shanks that they either do not project beyond the line ac in Figure XI and of these the spur maker says that they go to the straight edge LINIAL or else they project and then they are called advanced VORGESCHOSSENE shanks or their bending does not extend as far as the extended line ac and then one calls them retracted ZURUECKGESCHOSSENE shanks.A. The bars themselves (ab) will first be forged in the rough from one piece of Swedish iron and on the spot where the mouth piece hole ce and the hasp hi should arise, the spur maker draws out a broad piece with the peen of the hammer and, before this, makes a double recess in both cases on the edge of the anvil. This latter one knows already from the former section. If the shanks are to receive a round form, then one also swages it completely after the forging in a round indentation of a swage. If this part is just bent, then one bends it on the anvil with a hammer free hand and the spur maker just has to precisely measure it so that both bars receive an equal amount of bending. The main frame HAUPTGESTELLE ad, ae will be made shorter than the lower part and therefore the flapsfor the mouth piece hole c, e must be forged out a little over half of the whole (amount). Normally this hole is round and therefore it will be hollowed, that is, pierced with a round drift punch DORN, widened on the round horn of the bick iron and afterwards further finished out with a file. In just this way the hasp b will also be made. The rectangular hole (a) one cuts on the bick iron cold with a chisel and the holes in which the curb chain fg hangs will first be pre-punched with a corer KERNER Figure V 2 and then be pierced with a pointed drift. Otherwise the spur maker punchs further a small slot on the inner surfaces of each bar under the mouth piece hole c, e with a chiel so that he can comfortabley pierce holes if brass buckles are to be fastened onto the bars. Finally the artisan finishes these bars as he does all the remaining pieces with the file and finally "strips" them with the smooth file. The reader has been sufficiently instructed about this operation from the former section. Page 47. The file makes indentations here and there for decoration as well as cutting holes with a chisel on broad surfaces and afterwards will be worked out with the file. On the tip of the hasp b a hole will be punched on the bick iron through which onw places the tenon of the usualforged and filed swivel WIRBEL (hi). The rein ring, the spur maker forges from a small piece of iron, bends it around on a bick iron, and welds it together. Then the tenon of the swivel hi will be bent cold around the rein ring. In Figure XII this swivel will be distinctly apparent (fall into the eye distinctly), h and i is the swivel, k and l are the rein rings.B. The most effort is occasioned by the mouth piece cde Figure XIa, that can be either hollow or solid. In both cases both halves cd, de are cone-shaped and curved like the horns of a steer.a) The hollow mouth piece will be hollowed out in such a manner, so that they will not be burdensome to the horse because it is somewhat strong. The spur maker forges a flat piece of iron and gives it the required tapered form leaving however on the tip a stout piece for a hole or GEWINDE (link). He lays the forged out sheet on the hollow of the top die KAPPENSTEMPEL Figure I 1, sets the round head of the upper part of the swage hammer 2 on the sheet and strikes the opposite end of the swage hammer with another hammer. The sheet will hereby be driven into the hollow and be bent. But now it must be bent around into a conical shape. For this purpose, he lays it in the round slot mentioned on the face of the anvil and rolls it together in this slot with the hammer so that the long edges butt against each other exactly. His practiced hand must do everthing in this operation. From the piece remaining on the tip of each half he makes either a ring on a mandrel or he forges it out into a tenon. Each half of the mouth piece must recieve a greater length in forging though, as one saw with a finished bar, since with the surplus that will be called the head in the following text, each half of the mouth piece will be fastened into the mouth piece holes c, e. The spur maker measures off as much of the head for each half as he wants to lay around the side c of the mouth piece hole and he marks it with a file. He cuts a narrow piece up to the file mark further along the thickness of the ring that forms the mouth piece hole at the place where the edge of the rolled up mothpiece butts together with the chisel, lays the half of the mouthpiece on the slot of the mouth piece hole iron Figure II 1, places the drift 2 in the former slot of the mouth piece, and by the blow of a hammer he pierces the slot considered against and a second one, that is just as long and broad as the first. In this manner the head will be parted into two equal parts of the each half of the mouth piece through one doubled slot. Figure XI b will make one such half of the mouth piece with its slots (a) understandable. The half of the mouth piece will be further held in place by means of the curved hole (a) of the mouth piece hole iron Figure III in the vice and the part e Figure XIa of the mouth piece ring is laid on the bar at both of the slots a Figure XIb. The artisan cuts the perimeter of one half b of the head round with a chisel on the mouth piece, bends it with the hammer around the mouth piece ring of the bar c Figure XIa and in just this manner he places the other half c Figure XIb around the former. With the hammer as well as with the dull chisel, he draws the first part tightly into the corner and he understands the art of driving it so skillfully with the hammer and filing it for smoothness that everyone believes that the mouthpiece is welded onto the bar. With most bars, the mouth piece holds together with the bar, with the English (ones) both pieces are movable on eachother like a joint GEWINDE however. In this case, the head will just be pulled onto the mouth piece hole tighter. If both halves are fastened to the bars in this manner then the spur maker places the tenons on the tip of one half of the mouth piece in the hole of the other, bends the tenons cold around into a ring shape and by this mean unites the halves of the mouth piece and at the same time the two bars also.b) The solid mouth pieces are quite a bit thinner than the former and will usually be forged, bent, and joined to each other in the manner described above. Thus there is nothing further to mention about these pieces other than just how they are attached onto the bars. This can be done in two ways. The head of each half of the mouth piece will eityher be forged out a bit broader into a flap just so that this comes to stand not in the middle but rather on one side and that a recess beneath the flap results from the forging on the edge of the anvil. The flaps will be bent around on a mandrel hot so that a ring is made and this one drives onto one side of the mouth piece hole Figure XIc together tightly with the hammer and a blunt chisel. Or one leaves a solid piece instead of the mouth piece hole c through which a hole will simply be punched with a drift. From the head of each half of the mouth piece, the spur maker files a rivet which he rivets into the hole just mentioned of the solid piece c, countersinks, and concels with a file. To this end the side of the hole where the rivet will receive a head will be widened with the blunt tip of a corer KERNER Figure V 1 and in this hollow the head of the rivet will be driven with the hammer. When all is well filed, then one can hardly notice the rivet. Meanwhile one places three or four cylinders, solid rings on each half of the solid mouth piece, that the file gives a few slots or grooves Figure XII cde. He will forge out a bar of iron as thin as the breadth and thickness of the cylinder should be and then one cuts the piece off from which the cylinder will be bent. The spur maker scarfs each piece with the hammer on each end so that the ends can be beaten together over each other, and they are bent hot around one the cylinder mandrel. This is tapered and one can also bend small or large rings around it sincwe the rear-most cylinder of the mouth piece is naturally larger than the middle-most. The ends of the bent cylinders do not yet butt together completely when they are bent around the mandrel and therefore the spur maker can place then onto the mouth piece. Finally he drives the ends tightly together with a hammer on the mouth piece and with the same instrument he joins the overlapping ends together precisely. Instead of three or four small cylinders each half of the mouthpiece also receives one individual piece that is as long as the entire half cd and this cylinder one calls a pear cylinder BIRNWALZEN. C. The curb chain Figure XIa fg likewise is helps join both bars and for the BENDIGUNG of the horse. There are three types. The armour chain PANZERKETTE are the most solid because it will be fastened each time by two links onto its adjacent links. Each link is either cut from a thick wire or from a thin forged round bar according to a measurement. From this point it will be bent free hand with a hammer, soldered with copper (brazed) as has already been illustrated with the locksmith on page 56, clamped in the vice and twisted with the tongs. It is understood that most links GLIEDERN must first be soldered if they are already joined to the rest. On one end of the chain there is a single link by which means the chain is fastened to the bar, on the other end though (there is) merely a hook so that the foam chain SCHAUMKETTE can be taken off. The English curb chain is not differentiated from the former other than that it is only simple. The French will only be bent like the foam chain and is not soldered together. Their limbs are also thinner than the former. Instead of the curb chain one uses the curb chin cap KINNKETTENKAPPEN Figure XIII. The appearence shows in the illustration that this cap tapers on both ends to a point. Therefore an iron of this form will be drawn out flat freehand bent like a bow and hollowed out like a half cylinder in the swage with the peen of the hammer. Finally the spur maker adjusts the cap completely with a hammer on a mandrel that has a rounded tip that during use is placed in a hole on the anvil. The teeth that one will likewise notice in the illustration on each side below will be cut with the file. D. The foam chain Figure XIa hi is much thinner than the curb chain and its links will just be bent together. The spur maker places a wire in the blunt slot of the STECHEISEN Figure IV, bends both rings with a hammer in this from which the link results but leave one ring open a little so that he can join it to the ring of the next link and cuts the link off with the edge of the STECHEISEN. With the assembly of all the links the ring that is not completely shut will be driven together tightly with the hammer.Among the German bits one can also count the Dessau bits that have sharply bent shanks and pear cylinders; see page 99.b) With the English bits Figure XIV, the main frame as well as the shanks are just thin and round. The ring for the bridle (a) is flat round and the hasp b is half round. The mouth piece is solid and the foam chain lacks bars in the English bit.c) The French bit Figure XV resembles the gelding bridle bit WALLACHENKANDAREN since the bars are flat and extend up to the straight-edge. But the mouthpiece is not fastened in the method onto the bit as the others are. The split head of each half of the mouth piece is only as high as the mouth piece ring except that on each side of the head Figure XI b c a narrow piece like a tenon still remains. On each side of a sheet which one calls the base BODEN and which is as broad as the interval of both halves of the head b, c on the mouth piece a slot will be filed out corresponding to the tenon just mentioned. The slot of the base will fit onto the tenon b,c and both parts will be well driven together with the hammer. d) The Polish bit differs from the German in that their shanks are sharply bent and that between both halves of the mouth piece a gibbet GALGEN is fastened with a rivet on each end of the gibbet or also just both halves of the mouth piece are very curved in the middle. Of the latter type one can get an idea in the representation in Figure XVI. On the tip of the gibbet sometimes a play thing, small iron pieces of different forms, will be fastened in a hole.e) Coach bits are much more solid than the riding bits and will be made according to the German manner Figure XVII. In forging,one leave a piece of iron st b under the flap of the mouth piece hole, whichwill be further forged out for decoration, pierced with a drift punch DURCHSCHLAG and welded on the circumference. This same thing sometimes happens to the broad parts of the projecting bars. With a few bits the shanks are bent at c somewhat or it has a knee and both halves of the mouth piece bcd can either be joined by a link or also can be welded together. Instead of the foam chain, they have a fixed transverse bar ce.f) The cap bridle KAPPZAUM, Figure XVIII that is placed over the nose of the unbroken horse is a curb chain cap KINNKETTEKAPPE Figure XIII in basic similarity. On each pointed end it has a ring Figure XVIII a and on the cap itself there are likewise raised stubs or horns that the ring bears. Instead of the ring (a) a rectangular hole c will also be started.A few remarks serve here on account of completeness to take a space. 1) Nothing is more common than that the parts of different bits be mixed with each other and through this new types have been originated. For example, the English bit one tends to give a German main frame. 2) With strong mouthed horses one uses a sharp snaffle Figure XIX instead of a mouth piece. Such a snaffle consists of more solid limbs that are joined by links. Each limb has teeth on one side but on the other it is round. One can therefore break the horse with the teeth but also turn the snaffle around if the goal is attained. 3) The bridle bit KANDAREN is much shorter than the other bits and there are bridle bits of all the types of bits named. Instead of the hasp Figure XIIb they only receive a pulley KLOBEN, that is, a smallhole. 4) The bit for an over snaffle GEBISSE ZU DEN UEBERTRENSE Figure XX arefamiliar to everyone. They will be made like the solid moth pieces and receive along with a ring on each end two or three limbs GLIEDERN. 5) Instead of the bit, on poor bridles the so called KIEBELTRENSE snaffle Figure XXI will be fastened. The rings of the reins will be buckled at (a). 6) A few snaffles consist of plain small reins that do not restrain the horse from moving its tongue. Therefore one uses these snaffles on watering the horses. Figure XXII. 7) The cool snaffle Figure XXIII one places on over heated horses instead of a bit in its mouth in order to wipe away the overflowing foam. The bent iron ab is therefore movably fastened onto the bit cd. The manufacture of all the small pieces can easily be clarified from the text above.B. After the bits the spurs deserve to take their place. The parts of this familiar ppiece of riding equipage are the throat on which the wheel is fastened, both the shanks that are placed around the boot and the feet, the ends of both shanks on which are commonly fastened small buttons and a buckle.a) The HUSATEN spurs are the simplest since they will not be fastened to the straps rather they are riveted to the boot. Figure XXIV. One first forgew a flat piece of iron to the requisite length and on the end one forms a thin throat (a) at the same time. The broad remaining part will be twice split along its length with the chisel, or divided into three equal parts that are attached to the throat. From the middle strip the spur maker cuts away as much as he takes to be about a half inch long. On this he fastens the throat iron Figure VI in the vice, places the throat (a) Figure XXIV in a hole in this instrument and drives all three strips out from each other in such a manner with the hammer that they touch the throat iron HALSEISEN. The shanks come to lie in a straight line and the narrow strip or the bridge STEG b makes a right angle with it. The latter receives this position and will only be forged out; the shanks thouggh must be finished further. The spur maker lays the shanks heated in a slot of a swage Figure VII, drives them into a slot in it with a hammer, and by this means shapes it half-round. If bent they are bent free hand with the hammer so that they have a straight alignment with the throat. The tip or the foot of each shank just receives a hole c, d on the Hussar spurs as will as the bridge b also and by means of these holes the spur will be rivetted to the boot of the Hussar. The throat one splits on its tip and files out the slot further since the wheel will be fastened in this slot. For the latter, the spur maker measures a small disk with a compass one a forged sheet, cuts it out cold with a chisel, and files the teeth by eye with it clamped in a vice. It will be fastened in the slot with a rivet.b) The common spurs differ from the foregoing type in that they receive no bridge STEG and therfore are also only split once and that on the end of the shank they have a foot with buttons and a buckle. One also gives them however, instead of the feet, a rectangular ring on the tip of each shank into which the straps will be fastened. The artisan likewise forges a straight piece of iron first and draws out the throat on each end. Since they recieve no bridge though, he cuts the broad end apart just once, and forms the shanks from both strips in the manner described above. The tip of each shank will be forged flat with the hammer, split, and shaped into two round flaps or feet. Each foot receives a hole from a punch into which on one shank, abuckle; and the other, a button; which hold the strap tight, will be fastened. The button, the spur maker forges like a nail, finishes it thoroughly with a file and rather than a point, gives it a rivet with the file with which they rivet it into the hole of the foot on the spur. One will have already formed a good conception of the manufacture of the buckle from the descrioption of the buckle hole tool Figure VIII. From a forged sheet (piece of metal) a piece of iron corresponding to the form of the buckel of theis type will be cut and shaped with the file. The tenon of the die c is a little bit longer than the tenon d. One can thus place the tenon c in the hole (a), and in spite of this lay the sheet beneath the tenon d on the hole b. A blow of the hammer on the die at e cuts the opening of the buckle and one already knows from the text above that the rectangular and the half-round openings of the buckle will be driven out with a special swage. Around the iron strip between both openings, a tongue will be bent from a sharpened wire. The throat of the spur will be bent a bit with the hammer and the slot next to the wheel will be made in the manner described above. Usually one blues the wheel. When they are well filed and polished, the spur maker lays it on the hot coals where it easily takes on the blue coloring. This type of spur will be divided into English and German types, and the difference rests merely on the placement of the shanks. The shanks of the German spur runs in a position with the throat forward, the English will have the throat bent upwards a bit with the hammer. both types often receive a link in the middle of each shank so that one can slide it off of the boot all the more comfortably. This intention will be all the better acchieved with the spring spurs. These will be forged very thin from the softest iron and afterwards hardened. In the hardening one uses the powder that is used to harden files which will be more extensively discussed in the next section. One covers the spur with this powder and afterwards with loam and lets it get white hot WEISSWARM in the forge. It must lie in the fire over night and cool in it. It appears though that when the local spur maker is not completely familiar with the manufacture of this spur then they commonly come to us from Nuremberg. The manufacture of the brass spurs belongs to the work of the brass worker.C. Likewise, the spur maker forges the stirrup Figure XXV from one piece. They consist of both the shanks ab, ac on which a ring (a) stands for the stirrup strap. a) The German stirrup has a sole SOLE bc that is assembled from two oval bent loops BUEGELN. One forges a thin bar and ,by means of a recess on the edge of the anvil, leaves a strong rectangular piece in its center into which the hole for the stirrup strap is punched in a rectangular shape with a chisel on the bick iron. out of both of the ends on each side of theis hole a shank will be forged round partly, smoothed in a swage, and bent free hand into a curve with the hammer. On the end of each shank a flat piece of iron remains from which the sole results. Each of these flat pieces will be split once along their length, cut off from each other and then will be bent on the edge of the anvil along with the recess at b and c, or bent at a right angle. Both of the ends bd and be and cd, ce that result from each split piece beneath the shanks will be forged into a rectangular shape and bent in such a way that two ends of different shanks butt up against each other and that all four ends form an oval ring. Finally the spur maker welds two and two ends together at the place where they contact at d and e. It is understood that the file must finally finish the stirrup. Sometimes the stirrup also receives a swivel instead of the hole (a) for the stirrup straps. This will be forged separately, so that a tenon results on a half round flap and a half round hole will be struck by a punch through the latter. Likewise a hole will be punched through on the back of the shank of the stirrup with a punch, and the tenon of the swivel will be placed through, when one has made it red hot. From the tip of the tenon a head will be forged with the hammer to hold the swivel tightly on the stirrup. The stirrup and the head of the swivel cannot be united by the forging since one only lets the tenon get red hot.b) The English stirrup is differentiated from the former only in that they receive a rectangular sole SOLE, and this can either be solid or consist of two loops BUEGELN. In the first case the piece that remains below each shank will just be drawn out flat, bent at a right angle and welded at the spot where the two pieces butt up against each other. If the sole consists of loops then these will be formed like the former stirrups and merely bent into a rectangle. Sometimes the spur maker sets in another bar between the two shanks which he calls a bridge (fg) or also a cross. In both cases he makes a slot where the bridge will rest on the inner surface of the sole at the point f, d with the file, pushs the bridge into this slot, and drives it thoroughly into the sole with the hammer. The spur maker calls this grinding in the bridge STEG. c) The Hungarian stirrup have flat shanks and a broader flat sole. The stirrup hole will drawn out raised and the form of the hole is somewhat oval. Like the former type they will be forged from a single piece of iron but are welded together at (a) in the middle of the stirrup hole. D. The spur maker makes the curry comb entirely from sheet iron. The narrow side of the box KASTEN he gives teeth with the curry comb cutting iron STRIEGELHAUEISEN Figure IX as has already been shown above, and adjusts them peroendicularly on the edge of the anvil about an inch. Between both of the adjusted sheets, six other sheets of the same height will be rivetted on the box. On each end of the sheet a flap will therefore be forged out and pierced with a punch DORN in order to fasten a rivet in the hole. Four of these sheets likewise receive teeth but two remain smooth and these will always be fastened following tow sheets with teeth. These flat sheets take off the bristles. On each side of the curry comb a projecting tenon will be rivetted on. It therefore has a flap which is pierced by a rivet and lies on the inner surface of the curry comb. On the outer side of the curry comb, the spur maker rivets on two narrow pieces of metal or forks along the breadth to which he gives an up turned ring during the forging in the middle. The ring on the forward fork recieves screw threads from the screw cutting die and therefore the piece of metal is called the screw fork. A tang will be placed through both rings that has a screw on its foremost end. One easily sees that the tang is screwed into the forward ring and is fastened in this manner. On the opposite end of this tang a wooden handle is rivetted.All the pieces described will be finished completely with the file and then tinned. The spur maker cleanses his wares just twenty four hours in strong vinegar and salt since they otherwise are smooth and clean enough. After this most pieces will likewise be laid in a pan in which one has melted English tin and about two fingers depth of tallow TALCH. When the wares are in the tin the heat of the metal must be moderate or the tinning will be yellow. As long as they are in the pan the spur maker moves all the pieces around constantly and allows them to lie in the tin until they are completely covered. If a piece is still speckliecd with black then they must be freshly filed and tinned anew.V. Guild regulations. THe spur maker has a work very similar to the locksmith. Their apprentices study for five years and at least three years if they give over an apprenticeship fee. They deviate from the locksmith in that they give their travelling journeymen a gift. The fellow journeymen give him a few days food and trink and a Groschen besides and they receive six Groschen for the nights stay from the master. The master gives this money after the turn REIHE. For a masterpiece they manufacture two riding bits, six coach bits, one pair of pierced stirrups, and one pair of spurs with hidden screws GEWINDEN. All of these must be decoratively finished. Translator's Note:In this and the subsequent two chapters, one finds the translations in an earlier stage of translation than in those that come before. It should be understood that the entire project is a work in progress and will be continually refined over the next few years.
Harold // 2:39 PM
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------TRADES AND ARTS The Sword Furbisher and Sword CutlerCopyright: Harold B. Gill, IIIP. N. Sprengel's Handwerke und KuensteVolume 7Chapter 4The Sword Furbisher and Sword CutlerI. Contents.This is a twin profession in most cities in Germany that deals with the assembly of the parts of a sword. Commonly, one adds the work only to the sword furbisher, but the sword cutler is in no way inferior in skill to any. Both artisans have not only the essential techniques in common, but also one is as good as the other in that the manufacture of the blade is not part of their work and most of the time they let the metal sword hilts be cast by the other metal workers. Meanwhile they possess skill enough to cast the hilts from precious or base metals with the processes of the goldsmiths and brass workers. Most merely polish and trim the cast hilts, though; gilding and silvering them not only with the already familiar materials, but rather also with sheet gold leaf, and putting the scabbard of wooden chips and leather together. It will therefore not be necessary to dedicate a separate chapter to each of these professions.II. From this the reader already comprehends that, besides the sword furbisher, the sword cutler requires the following materials.A. From gold, silver, brass, and, at the same time, from Dombak also, he casts the sword hilts. In various cases he also cannot dispense with hard solders of brass and zinc. B. The cast hilts, he gilds not only with the familiar amalgam of mercury and gold in the fire, but rather also with gold leaf. Similarly, he understands a doble method of silvering, with silver that is dissolved in nitric acid and with silver leaf. Of the gold and silver leaf that the sword furbisher requires, the reader can consult the first section of the third volume, page 24, 26.C. The hanger and "Couteaur de Chasse" receive in addition to the metal hilt also a grip of ebony and other rare woods, likewise of ivory, bone, antler, tortoise shell, and horn. With the latter it is only to be mentioned that the black horn of the Hungarian ox is the best, since the remaining particulars one has already explained above in the description of the cutler. Volume 6 page 147. All these grips will be polished with pumice, tripoli, and olive oil.D. The scabbards are assemblies of splints of red beech wood. These splints were cut in the woods especially for the use of shoe makers. The wood will be over laid with the aid of joiners glue with sheep skin, calf skin, parchment, fish skin, and shagreen. The metal work of the scabbard, the artisan cuts from sheet brass most of the time.E. The most important purchase of the well-off sword furbisher, who makes swords for sale, is the blade. One certainly says, that the sword furbishers in recent times have forged the blades themselves, only now one must not expect this work from them. The weapons factory on the plain not far from Spandau only supplies blades for the army of the king and therefore all the blades belonging to private citizens are among the imported products. The familar arms factory at Solingen in the Duchy of Bergen supplies our area with all new blades. An extensive description of the different blades would be inappropriate here, because now the discussion is not about the blade smith. In the meantime, a few short accounts will not be disagreeable to the reader.1) The familar sword blades are roughly described. Of them, one praises the Spanish sword blades above all others. They are the longest of all and, like all stabbing swords, rigid. To differentiate them from others, on the blade is the name of a Spanish city, a cross, or a Roman head. The local sword furbishers purchases these used, because they now seldom find sellers of them. The Solingen factory tends to imitate all the famous blades and this even applies to the Spanish blades. Only the Spanish blades, that are made at Solingen one can easily distinguish from the genuine, since each can be used for stabbing and slashing both. A blade of this type is broad under the tang and tapers to a point a little ways from the middle of the blade. The stronger half is called the parry PARIRUNG by those who under stand the art. The reed blade SCHILFKLINGEN is triangular, as everyone knows, light, and rigid because they are one of the stabbing swords. Each surface is ground out hollow, and below the tang they likewise have a parry PARIRUNG. In the Prussian lands they are forbidden on account of their injuriousness. This and all other blades that we see daily on the side of civilian classes come to us from Solingen. On the blade the name of the factory that sold it to Solingen appears and now Abraham Berg has been made most famous in our region for his blades. THe most flexible of Solingen's blades one calls "Wolf's blades". They are somewhat thin and almost oval. One says that this name of its inventor, led to the name Wolf and their distinguishing mark is an engraved wolf to this day. Commonly, the purchaser believes that the flexibility or rigidity of a blade originates from the different degrees of hardness. The connoisseur, however, knows nothing about it. It is rigid if it is forged solid, and is ground little. The converse can easily be guessed from this. Moreover the local sword furbisher lets hollow blades and edged blades come from Solingen. THe latter have an edge on a flat side, with the former, though, below the tang a hollow is ground out instead of an edge.2) The saber blade surpasses the sword blades in length and width. Besides they are somewhat curved, have a broad back and beneath the back are ground out somewhat hollow. Page 77. Most of these qualities give the saber an emphasis for slashing. Who in our region doesn't know that the Turkish and, in particular, the Damascus blade shall surpass all ohters in quality? They are given the mark of a half moon or also the sun, moon, and stars. The latter commonly arise from the hand of a Solingen blade smith. These understand how to outwardly give their contrived blades a water like appearence, by which means they dupe the inexperienced. To this point, the quality of these blades is just so uncertain as their manufacture. A few believe that they are forged from iron and steel alloyed, others, though, believe that they are hardened in the winter time in a cold forced draft. Aside from other reasons, their solid form and their marbled or watered appearence appears to betray their secret. The Turks apparrently forge them from a collection of old knives and other small cutting instruments because they lack a steel mill for it. It is natural, that the tangle of these pieces give the blade a water-like appearence, and because they are quite solid, then they do not need to be hardened much. They therefore disintegrate into pieces easily in the fire and remain bent if one grinds them and afterwards flex. The greatest flaw of these blades is that they commonly have a soft tang. The sabers will seldom be found in our area except from the Hussars. When necessary, the sword furbisher receives these blades from Solingen also where most of the Polish sabers are forged as well that are distinguished from the others only by a very simple grip.3) The hanger blades are much shorter than the saber blades and narrower. Commonly, they run straight and a good hanger will be forged from a good steel before all other blades. The curved hanger blades one calls Bandore blades PANDURENKLINGEN. Almost all very fine hanger and sword blades have a blued parry PARIRUNG, onto which hunting scenes are engraved.4) The dagger one seldom sees in our neighborhood. As is well known, they have a short blade, that previously used to be made like the Reed blade SCHILFKLINGEN, now though they are made like a small hange. 5) The rapier blades are known well enough. They are forged from the best steel and well hardened.6) The field knife of the hunter is forged entirely from iron and steel and their blades surpass all others in breadth. They will be made by the local sword cutler with the processes of the cutler. The quality of all blades one can discover merely by the flexibility. Those are best that, when bent, nevertheless spring back straight strongly. The bladesmith hardens many in a bundle at the same time, in which case the middle most tend to be the best because the outermost are commonly too hard because one set them out the furthest into the heat during the hardening. Thelocal sword furbisher does not concern himself with the blades further than that he gilds the same with gold leaf on the parry if need be and unites it with the hilt by means of the hilt. Blued and rusted blade, he normally leaves to the cutler to polish again.Note: Fish skin is the dried skin of the ocean fish sturgeon ROGGEN. Shagreen is prepared by the Turks from the skin on the back of an ass, or according to another meaning, of a camel.III. Because the casting and the working of the metal hilt is usually the work of the sword furbisher and sword cutler as said in the contents, thus it is already understood that they must possess the tools of the brass worker that will be urgently needed. Among these are the forge along with the requisite crucibles and casting flasks, the vice, files of all types, bits, scraping knives, and particular gravers and punchs. Both of the latter pieces the sword furbisher calls chisels MEISEL. All of these pieces are spoken of with more detail in the sections that deal with the goldsmith and brass workers in the third and fifth volumes. Next are two instruments that only see service in the workshop of the sword furbisher though.A. The parts of the sword hilt will be fastened by the cutting of two special pitch blocks. On the first pitch block Plate IV Figure I, lies the work considered; the case or cross of the hilt. From the outset it should be mentioned, that by both of these expressions one means the solid part between the guard and the handle along with the parry bar PARIRSTANGE and the handle (guard) BUEGEL. The wooden pitch block must therefore be bent according to the form of the guard. On one end lies the solid part of the hilt, which one calls the breast BRUST, and on this end the hilt will also be fastened to the pitch block. For this reason, an iron arm is opened Figure I abc whos perpendicular parts c and a are mortices in on the sides of the wooden pitch block is such a manner that the whole arm abc can be slid on and off. This latter operation, one effects with a screw d which bores through the horizontal part b of the iron arm and the pitch block at the same time. Both of the perpendicular parts a and c project a bit over the cement stick and in the projcting part, a pin can be screwed on. In use one moves the iron arm abc upwards by means of the screw and now one can place the breast of the cross under the stick ac, and the guard comes to rest from e to f. The tip g of the screw d has a hole and, through, this an iron pin is placed at the same time through the opening of the breast also. If one then tightens the screw again, then the arm abc is moved off and the case of the sword hilt will be held tight by this on the pitch block, the point of the guard though fastened at f with a strap. The whole pitch block, the artisan clamps into the vice during the cutting. On the second pitch block Figure II the guard lies during cutting. It likewise is of wood, and one iron screw ab penetrates it at its axis. The guard has a hole in the middle, as is well known, and aided by this hole one can shove it onto the tip b of the screw ab. By a hole in this tip a stick is placed over the guard and one easily comprehends that this stick holds the guard tightly when the wing nut a is tightened. Nearly just the form and arrangement the wooden block has on which the guards are scraped. The tip b has only a rectangular head, with which the guard is held tight. The cement of the sword furbisher will as usual be melted together from pitch and brick dust and warned again for use. If it should be malleable then a little tallow must be added to the pitch and brick dust.B. The thread wheel ZWIRNRAD Figure III one seldom finds in the workshop, but rather more often in the factories. With this the brass and silver thread will be twisted. The teeth of a small iron cog wheel ab, that, as a glance at the illustration will show, runs in a large frame cd, grips a small iron gear e. The axle of this gear penetrates on the side of the frame and projects a few inchs from the frame. The tip of the projecting part is curved into a hook on which the end of the wire, that one wants to wind together is fastened. The crank on the axle of the wheel ab, along with the wheels itself, can be turned right and left and therefore one can twist the two ends of wire right and left also.C. The purpose of the iron grip crank GRIFFWINDE Figure IV is to wrap the twisted wire onto the wooden grip of the sword hilt. Both of the vertical walls ab, cd of the case carry an iron spool ef in the middle and on this a ratchet wheel gh is placed and the teeth of this ratchet wheel, as with all ratchet wheels of this type, a click pawl d grips. During use, the wall ab will be bent back so that one can put on the wooden grip onto the spool ef at e. There must therefore be a hole already burned through the axis of the wooden grip with the tang of a blade. The ratchet wheel gh has its use then only if both ends of the wire that one winds around the handle at the same time are engaged so that the winding does not run off of the handle again when one stops the winding. A person turns the wooden grip on the spool ef aided by a handle i and another holds and directs both ends of the wire that one wraps on. Of necessity, the crank will be clamped in a vice.D. The riffle files Figure V have a bent handle and a cylindrical head on which file cuts are made. With these files recessed surfaces will be filed out and, in particular, the smooth guard on a officer's sword, because it is surrounded by a lip RAND. E. Figure VI presents a piece of rouge or jasper which is fastened into a wooden handle. Both the rouge and jasper have a flat oval point and the leaf gilding will be polished with both. For this purpose, one prefers the black or iron colored rouge over the red.F. Figure VII is a small iron gold tongs with which the sword furbisher lays on the leaves of gold or silver during the leaf gilding. G. The scabbard press Figure VIII consists of a small brasss cylinder that runs between a fork. The handle of this fork has a wooden haft. On the face of the cylinder mentioned above, afew raised designs are stamped with a graver since the black scabbard will be decorated with this press.IV. It would be quite a redundant task to look up all the sword hilts that the necessity or the fashion introduced in each period. The description will come out to be extensive enough if we only give an account of the hilts that we now see daily.A. To begin with, the manufacture and assembly of tehparts of a fancy or chamber sword may be presented whereby one lets all remaining examples also consist of two parts; the hilt, and the assembly of the scabbard.a) In one of the foregoing volumes, a discussion of the manufacture of the sword hilts of Gold or silver has already been given, (Volume 3, page 178) and therefore one will now confine oneself merely to hilts that are cast from base metals.If the sword furbisher dabbles in the making of gold and silver hilts, then he uses the same processes in doing so that have already been explained in the location cited above. From the outset, though, it will be good to make the reader familiar with the nomenclature of the parts of a hilt. The complete sword hilt will be assembled from the following pieces. Figure XIIa is called the sword knob and b the grip and guard gh one calls the breast BRUST with which the prop STUETZEN d, the parry bar PARIRSTANGE e, and the guard fa make up the whole. This whole that, as stated, consists of the breast, the prop, the parry bar, and the guard is called by the sword furbisher, the hilt or the cross. Just this sme nomenclature will also be used for the sabers and hangers. The fashion has now removed the guard and the prop from the fancy sword. In contrast, a curved transverse guard will be soldered on the outer side of the parry bar Figure IX gh. All the remaining parts of the fancy sword receive the names given. With the hilts of the broadswords, sabers, and hangers there arise a few special parts that will be discussed in their place. The colloquial usage makes it necessary that one present all these names in the following description.A. The individual parts of a brass or Dombak sword hilt, a few sword furbishers and sword cutlers cast themselves only more leave this work to the brass workers. If they dable in it though, then they use the cating sand in the casting flasks, and this work has already been set in the light in a similar case Volume 5 page 95. Usually the knob Figure XIIa, like the grip b will be cast in two halves that are soldered together with hard solder (spelter solder) SCHLAGLOTH. Meanwhile one can alsocast over a core of loam, after the mannerof the bronze founder. The breast c, the support (prop) d, the parry bar e, and the guard fa will be united by the casting and, in the breast c, a core of clay or loam will be placed through which a hole for thetang of the blade will result. The sword shell gh one likewise casts solid. Only the worst sword hilts will be brought to completion merely by polishing, for example, the sabers of teh common infantry soldier. In this case, the reader already knows the material by which the brass receives its polish (Volume 5, page 99). Only it is much more common that the hilt receive designs of raised work from the casting and this must be cut with a graver and the chasing punchs. The latter, the sword furbishers and sword cutlers execute for themselves in all cases and they boast that they are above all other metal workers in this operation. It may be true, because it is their daily work, through whichthey necessarily arrive at their finished work. Only it cannot be given a closer description because this depends on the skill at drawing, on a good eye, and particularly on a practiced hand. One must therefore leave a general description. The graver and the punchs take off all excrescences from the casting and with just these instruments, one works the perimeter of the designs out further as well as the inner drafts, the raised areas, and depressions. The difficulty of this work will evidently be decreased because the casting in most cases is already directed by the hand of the artisan, as he shall guide the graver and the punch. From the descriptions of the tools the reader will have learned that the parts of the hilt will be fastened into the pitch blocks Figures I, II with a cement of pitch and brick dust. Page 106. If the hilt is not gilt or silvered, which seldom occurs then it only needs to be polished with the materials already familiar. Volume 5, page 99.Attentive observers of the polite world will have noticed, in addition to the polished and trimmed hilts, two other types. A few hilts are pierced and others have a wooden, wire wrapped grip. The holes of the peirced hilt already come out in all their parts from the casting. The sword furbisher needs only to drill the holes out wider, and on the pitch block, trim it with the punchs and chisels. The fashion now requires that these hilts either be completely smooth or just receive completely flat cut designs. Instead of the metal grip, Figure XII b receives this hilt every time, occasionally thoughthe others too have a wooden grip that is wrapped in wire. The sword furbisher buys the brass wire already gilded or silvered, but the silver wire they tend to draw for themselves on a drawing bench, Volume 3, page 136. The wooden grip the artisan cuts from white beech with a knife in good order and works it out further with a wood rasp. The tang of the blade will be placed through the wooden grip and therefore a hole must be burned through the axis with the tang. Therefore one can place it on the iron spool of the grip winder Figure IV ef when he wants to wrap it with wire. From the text above it is revealed that this wire consists of two wrapped ends, and that the sword furbisher seldom uses the thread winder Figure III for this work, rather winding the ends of wire together free hand. To this single point, there is only to be asses that they winds up the two ends of the twisted wire at the same time, of which one of the ends is thinn and the other is thick and also that one end is twisted right and the other is twisted to the left. The artisan fastens both tips of the wire ito a hole of the wooden grip. The remaining has already been illustrated in the description of the grip winder. Page 109. The pierced sword with the wooden, wire wrapped grip will be purchased at present on account of the fashion and perhaps one calls them French swords for this reason. One overlays them with a combination of gold leaf and silver leaf and this gives them a colorful appearence to some degree which well may not suit the purchaser with taste if he does not allow himself to be carried away by fashion and by the name. In the present descriptions they have at least the beneficial quality of easing the discussion of gilding and silvering the sword hilts.The sword furbisher certainly also gilds with the familar amalgam of mercury and gold and they likewise understand the metod of silvering in which one uses his silver dissolved in nitric acid. Only the important points of the former arte already mentioned in the third volume, page 159, and, of the latter, in the fifth volume, page 125. In sopite of this, one must remain at the gilding and silvering a bit because the sword furbisher has this aspect beyong the other metal workers; that is, that he also gilds and silvers with gold and silver leaf. The former is called stone or leaf gilding and the latter, leaf silvering. One will be able to grasp this work all the more quickly because the proccesses of both gilding and silvering of this type will remain basically the same. The metal that one will overlay with gold and silver leaf will not be polished or trimmed but rather will remain as it comes from the casting flask because the gold and silver leaves would tear on the sharpened edges of the cut designs. Merely the flashing of the casting will be removed and the surfaces that one will gild or silver will be polished with pumice. By the latter (process), at the same time the joining of the gold and silver leaf will be facilitated because by this means the surfaces will be sharpened a bit. After the polishing the artisan lays the metal on the hot coals lets it come to "brown heat and then lays on the gold or silver leaves with the gold tongs Figure VII. In just this instant, he rubs the leaves with the Jasper or rouge Figure VI and lays the metal again on the hot coals. It must lie on these until a bit of cotton becomes brown when one holds it against the gilding. Then it will be taken off and the leaves will be pressed again with the same cotton on the joints. The artisan finally clamps the metal in the vice and gives the gilding and silvering a sheen with the jasper and finally with the rouge Figure VI. All metal can be gilded in this manner and therefore the sword furbishers tend to cover the parry PARIRUNG of the blade with gold or silver leave sometimes. In contrast, only the bladesmith possesses the secret of how to coat the amalgam of mercury and gold onto iron or steel. Shortly before this, on hinted that the French swords will be gilded with gold and silver leaf at the same time. In this situation the base of the described type will generally first be composed of silver leaf, and onto this the sword furbisher will lay on a few peices of gold leaf here and there. Finally he polishes this blend of gold and silver leaves with the jasper and rouge. If the hilt onto which one applies the gilding and silvering has decorative designs then these will be polished with the punchs (chasing tools) and one gives a few places a stronger sheen than others with these small instruments. Therefore the artisan says that he has decorated the hilt bright or matt. The punchs which must have an oval tip in this case will placed on the overlaid silver and gold leaves in this operation, and driven with the hammer. The different pieces, from which the hilt will be assembled one joins together with just the tang of the blade. The breast Figure XII c receives an opening in its center from the casting as does the sword shell STICHBLATT gh, the grip b and the knob a are hollow, however. Consequently, one can stick the tang through all of these pieces, rivet on top of the sword knob a and by this means drive together the parts of the sword hilt. This applies not only to the swords but also to the broadsword, the saber and the hanger. if the hilt receives a sword shell FIgure XII gh the the breast along with the sword shell will be rivetted before the assembly of the parts of the hilt aided by a tenon on the breast BRUST. This tenon of the breast c will be cast as well , and it must be hollow like the breast. The tenon, the sword furbisher sets into the hole of the sword shell from above, places from below a rectangular, tapered drift into the hollow tenon, drives the drift with a hammer into the hole, and by this means he locks the hollow tenon tightly into the hole of the sword shell. The transverse guard Figure IX gh will, on the other hand, merely be soldered onto the parry bar before the assembly of the parts of the hilt.B. The manufacture of the steel hilt in particular belongs to the work of the steel worker (page 67) and the sword furbisher only joins it with the blade. In the meantime, the sword furbisher at times leaves this kind of hilt to be forged by an iron worker and work them out further with the file. This happens in the situation where they want to wrap gold or silver leaf on the hilt. As soon as the hilt is well polished with powdered rouge, then the artisan sketchs on the same designs since the entire hilt will not be covered by the leaves mentioned but rather only the sketched designs will be. Inside of the circumference of the designs the artisan cuts crosshatchs with a small chisel and covers the entire space that is bounded by the perimeter with such cuts. This is called "cutting the ground". Corresponding to the measure of the perimeter he cuts the gold or silver leaf desins out and lays them on the cut ground. The uniting of the gold or silver leaf with the iron in this case merely depends on one driving each into the cut of the ground and this is done with a ground chisel GRUNDMEISSEL. This small steel bar that has small indentations on the base surfaces that touchs the gold and, with such an instrument, the gold and silver leaf will be driven into, or transposed onto, the cuts of the ground. One easily sees that the ground chisel must be driven with the hammer. The gold remains matt, the steel is, however, well polished beforehand with rouge as mentioned.b) Along with the sword hilt, the sword furbisher also works at the scabbard of the sword. As is well known, a scabbard will be assembled from splints of red beech wood and leather. One lays the plate on a splint, traces two peices on the wood according to the outline of the blade and cuts this out with a knife. If the scabbard is to be lined inside, the sword furbisher pastes flannel, or preferably vellum PARCHEN, on the the inner side of each splint with joiner's glue, and cuts away the excess when all is dry. Both splints will be properly laid upon the blade and pulled together using binding twine until they rest on the sides. In the joint one smears joiner's glue between the threads and by this means unites both splints. When the glue is completely dry then the binding twine will be unwrapped and the wooden scabbard will be smoothed with a wood rasp. Sometimes one pastes cloth or velvet in the opening of the scabbard with glue LEIM. The fittings of the scabbard can be either of wood or of leather and now one will discuss the former. Such mountings consist of three parts, the mouth peice Figure IX i, the clasp k, and the ear strap OHRBAND l. The clasp K will be cast solid in a flask polished or trimmed, and pasted onto the wood with strong joiner's glue if the scabbard has already been covered with leather. On the other hand the mouthpeice i and the ear strap l one cuts merely from sheet brass. The artisan takes the measure for both on a strong peice of paper on the wooden scabbard and sketchs the measure of each peice separately on the sheet brass. He wraps the sheet around the scabbard and solders the ends together with spelter solder. On the tip of the ear strap l a small knob will yet be soldered on that one works out from strong brass wire with a file. The mouthpeice as well as the ear strap one fastens likewise with a strong glue onto the wood. At this time the scabbard can be covered in leather for which one usually uses calf skin but sometimes uses sheep skin also. It is easy to comprehend, that the leather must be as broad as both the splints taken together and one prefers to cut it narrower rather than broader since Must pull it on the joined splints with force so it will be smoother. To understand this the reader must notice that the leather will not be joined to the wood but will be sewn together before the assembly. In the latter operation the sword furbisher uses merely the sewing needle and the thread will be coated in wax. So that the leather yields all the better during the pulling over one softens it in warm water. In pulling it on, liguid glue will be poured through the sewn up leather and the splints will likewise be coated with glue. If the leather on the wood is scraped on it, one rubs it with a wolf's tooth. Sometimes the leather receives its natural brown color, frequently however it is also painted black when it is already glued to the splints. It will be painted over with iron black EISENSCHWARZE that as is well known results when small beer stands a few days in rusted iron. After the coloring the scabbard will be rubbed down anew with the wolf's tooth. only the black scabbards does the sword furbisher tend to decorate with the scabbard press Figure VIII. The brass cylinder must be made hot on the glowing coals and when one has rolled the heated cylinder back and forth on the entire scabbard then the designs that the graver has impressed into the face of the cylinder are pressed into the leather. The finest scabbards and particularly the scabbards of the sabers of the Husaar officers are covered with shagreen by means of glue. The sword furbisher likewise colors them with iron black, coats the dry shagreen with a onion and rubs it with a brush. The latter gives the shagreen a sheen, that one frequently heightens with a varnish. All of this applies only to the brown and black scabbards in part, only the fashion now puts the sword furbisher in the necessity of also covering the scabbards in white. If the purchaser saves the price, then he selects the white calfskin for this, but the writing parchment and fish skin give a more durable and decorative covering of this type. The brown glue will soak through, however, if the white covering is pasted on with it and therefore instead one uses book binders' paste. Otherwise all these skins will be pulled over the splint with the processes already described. There is only this single point yet to note, that one often grinds off the grains NARBEN of the fish skin FISCHHAUT with pumice and olive oil. With childrens swords and "Couteaur de Chasse" the fish skin will also be colored green, One leaves them therefore lying for about forty eight hours in hot water with sal ammoniac and verdigris to which sometimes some copper water (blue vitriol) is added further.One must also attribute to fashion that the refined world now carry their sords in the manner of the Hussar sabers. The fittings will namely be fastened over the leather of the scabbard and instead of the clasp, one applies at the middle of the scabbard a piece of metal which is called the middle piece Figure XII k. On this piece of metal as well as on the mouth piece i a ring is soldered on and with this ring the sword is fastened to the sword belt. All the parts of such fittings will certainly also be bent together and soldered from sheet on the scabbard, and, because they will be apparent to the eye, one thus seeks to give them a pleasing appearence. Their circumference will therefore be cut out with a sheet shears and the visible surfaces engraved or chiseled and, according to the constitutuion of the hilt, gilt or silvered. The ring on the mouth piece i and the middle piece k will be bent together from brass wire along with their eyes OESEN and soldered together. With the same material one also fastens the eyes OESE on the fitting.B. The manufacture of the sword hilt and scabbard of a the officer of the infantry Figure X deviates little from the foregoing hilts. Their cross normally receives no prop STUETZEN but rather the parry bar e touchs the sword shell STICHBLATT directly. The latter is commonly smooth and has a rim; therefore the recess will be polished with the riffle files as has already been stated. The grip b is of wood and will be wrapped by wire. Furthermore, they will be either gilt or silvered according to the uniform each regiment wears. The scabbard off all blades of the infantry will be covered in calfskin and have particular coverings likewise of calfskin besides, that will be merely sewn together. The sabers of the common foot soldiers are broad and short as if well known, but it has a broad back. The pommel and grip of the hilt, the sword furbisher or the brass founder casts over a core of loam and the entire hilt will just be polished and joinedd to the blade by means of the tang. Because the saber has a broad back thus the scabbard must be glued together from three splints. They will indeed be covered only in calfskin, receiving though still one other covering of calfskin. All the rest has already been illumined in the foregoing (text).C. The broadsword of an officer of the cavalry Figure XIII deviates quite a bit from the hilt of the ordinary sword. There wooden grip is wrapped and will be covered with leather by means of glue. In the winding, wire is wrapped around the leather. The cross consists of the breast that is concealed in the illustration, the parry bar a, and the guard bc. All of these pieces will likewise be cast in their entirity. There is missing from this hilt a sword shell, that one calls the cockle or the basket dg. This peice covers the hand of the horseman during use of the broadsword. It will be cast entire with the bars d and e that onw calls "S" bars on account of their shape, and it receives raised designs from the casting; for example, a Prussian eagle, which the sword furbisher trims. The basket will be united by hard solder with the breast and the "S" bars d and e with the guard bc. On the back of the wooden grip lies the top piece KAPPE fg that is certainly narrow below g but widens to a strong head at f that one commonly gives the form of an eagle's head. The top piece will usually be cast and trimmed. Its tenon will be set into a hole in the parry bar and soldered at g. The guard bc, the sword furbisher fastens by means of a tenon that he places into a taper bored hole in the head of the top peice as with all other swords. The metal parts of the hiltwill be stronly gild in the fire and this, along with the fine finishing, is the only distinguishing factor between the officer's broadsword and the broadsword of the common cavalry soldier. The scabbard has nothing peculiar about it. Except for the Civil Service, the officers of the Prussian Cavalry carries a common strong sword that they call the Interim sword INTERIMSDEGEN.D. The hilt on the saber of the officer of the Hussars Figure XI has nearly just the same arrangement because it is only lacking the basket. It thus receives merely a breast a with the parry bar b and the guard cd that likewise are united by the casting and moreover the top piece bc and the parry bar ar tenoned and soldered on. The grip f is also of wood, wrapped and covered in leather and wire. This single item it has in addition over the hilt of the broadsword of the cavalry, that below the breast a half round piece of metal projects which one calls the spring g. They will likewise be cast with the breast and the intention is to hold the strong scabbard tightly onto the blade. In the illustration one will therefore notice that they rest directly on the metalwork of the scabbard. All these parts are smooth in most cases, except that they receive a few indentations and smooth bars from the casting somewhat along the length that the file finishs. The head c and the top piece bc will be trimmed into an eagle's head. The scabbards of these sabers though have something a liitle special beyond all others. Because they must be very strong then a scabbard of wood will be made the sword furbisher covers with Shagreen for the officer's sword instead of (making it from) splints from the joiners. The fittings of the scabbard consist of three pieces, the mouthpiece h, the middle piece i, and the ear strap OHRBAND k. These pieces will be cut from sheet as has already been illustrated on page 123. These fittings as well as the metal pieces of the hilt, the sword furbisher gilds heavily in the fire. The hilt and the scabbard of the sabers of the common Hussars receive just the same pieces but (they are) made of iron though. The sword furbisher lets the iron worker forge the hilt and finishes it himself with the file. E. Of all these hilts, the hilt of a hanger deviates around a evident point. The hunter indeed commonly tends to choose a metal, gilded hilt, and there is nothing more to mention other than a few name variations: Only the fine hangers that are known in the affluent world as "Couteaur de Chasse" receive a grip of wood, ivory, bone, horn, tortoise shell, and enamel. In both cases the parts lead to their individual names. The hanger that the illustration Figure XIV provides has, as the appearence shows, a grip of antler and on this one will remain then the variations of the others will be added briefly. The parts of the hilt of the hanger take the following names. The cross consists once more of a breast Figure XIV ab, the parry bar c, and the guard bd. The tenon of the guard at d is fastened into a frame EINFASSUNG that one calls the top piece KAPPE e. Instad of the sword shell, the hanger recieves a cockle MUSCHEL f, whose form leads in the operation to the corresponding name. They cover the handle of a knive along with the hanger of the hunter that is placed in a small scabbard next to the large one. The cockle holds together with a small plate beneath the breast ab, that one calls the small wreath KRAENZCHEN. Finally a few hangers tend to receive a frame above the breast ab that is called the ferrule ZWINGER. It is lacking though on the illustrated hanger. By means of this frame the assembley of the breast and the grip g will be hidden and when they lack this then the sword furbisher hides the lower end in a small border of the breast. The breast along with the parry bar and the guard or, in one word, the cross, the artisan casts in one piece here also and the parry bar and the guard he gives a few raised and trimmed designs, the breast though (he only gives) a few hollws and smooth bars. These will be finished just with the file. The cockle f commonly receives raised designs from the casting tat one then must trim. This will be fastenedby a rivet on the small wreath KRAENZEN below the breast. This can either be cast or just cut from sheet brass also, and in the middle a hole for the tang of the blade will be cut out with a chisel. The top piece KAPPE e is always cast, and one engraves or trims it, on the other hand, the ferrule will be rolled up from sheet brass and soldered together with hard solder. These parts can be gild or silvered completely in one orthe other manner as described above on page 115. All of this has no difficulties if the foregoing description has already been premised, but a bit more occurs to mention with the grip g. The grip of the illustrated hanger, as stated, consists of a piece of antler. In this case a piece of the antler of a deer has been cut off with a saw and both ends will be fit into the metal fixture with a rasp. Through the axis of the grip one drills a hole and when the horn has its marrow tube in the middle then the tang of the blade will be heated for the assembly of the parts of the hilt and burned into the hole of the grip. The tang, one rivets finally on the top piece e. The hanger has now come to completion, if the antler is to receive its natural brown color. The sword furbisher understands the art however of pickling the horn black. They cook it in lye first to this end and afterward cook it with brazil wood, gall nuts, and sumac in water. Gall nuts, brazil wood, and sumac will be taken in equal parts in this work.Now, in a few words, the most important points about the remaining grips of the hangers will be brought up since the metal parts remain like the former example except that a few "Couteaur de Chasse" have no guard. To begin with there is this to remember, that is that the handle sometimes consists of two parts. For this reason, a grass tang will be cast on the breast ab that is as lng and as wide as the grip. If one wants to cover the tang with antler then a piece of horn will be sawed along the length of another and the outline of both halves will be fashioned with a rasp according to the form of the flat tang. The tang of the blade then is likewise flat and will merely be pushed onto a hole in the middle of teh brass tang. There must be a few holes drilled in this tang through which one fastens it by mmeans of a few brass rivets onto the handle. In just this way the handles will also be fastened to the brass tang. It may be dsired to make the grip ain a whole piece, or in two halves rivetted onto a brass tang so one cuts it first with a saw from ebony, ivory, bone, or horn of Hungarian oxen and afterward fashions it with rasps and finally with the file. All of these handles will first be ground with pumice and finally polished with tripoli and olive oil applied with felt. The finest polish they receive though if they are rubbed by the ball of the flat hand. The enamel grips, the sword furbisher merely fastens on. In the past, one tended also to cover the grip with tortoise shell. Then the grip itself is of wood and this will be covered by the tortoise shell that one softens in hot water, glued on with the sturgeon bladder HAUSENBLASE, and finally polished in the manner described above. At present the "Couteaur de Chasse" normally receive a grip made of ivory that has the form of a cone. Around the cone though one wraps a winding of wire and yarn LAHN. One calls these a French grip. The sword furbisher works the cone with its wrapping free hand with a rasp and gives it a cross without a guard.Note: The dagger one seldom sees in our region. They receive across without a guard and a grip of wood, ivory, or horn, that the rasp gives a few knobs. Sometimes the sword furbisher lets tese and the round grips of the "Couteaur de Chasse" be turned by the turner. The rapier one gives a similar cross and a grip of iron. The sword furbisher understands the art of coloring ivory, bone, and horn. One has dealt comprehensively with this already in "The Cutler" Volume 6 page 147. One usually lets these grips come already colored from Solingen.F. The sword cutler (long knifesmith) LANGMESSERSCHMID has this above the sword furbisher, that is that he must make a Hunting or Field knife for a masterpiece, since this forms a special case this piece is seldom desired by a purchaser. The entire knife is iron and the traditional use of the artisan requires that the handle have raised designs. Similarly the scabbard must be covered in iron that likewise receives raised designs. It is up to the sword cutler, though, whether to let the cutler forge the knife and guild GEWERK is satisfied is he just cuts the elaborate designs himself with the graver. The grip ab and the blade bc will be forged in one piece at the forge, on the other hand, the bar or the cross de one fastens to the grip separately with rivets. The grip ab will first be forged out and one leaves a stout knob standing at (a) out of which a lion's head will be formed on the illustrated field knife with the gravers and chisel. At b a rectangular hole will be cut out for decoration and furthermore below this a rectangular slot into which the sword cutler will fasten a small iron plate by means of a rabbet in the following (text), and conceal the assembly with the file. The grip is iron and for the blade bc a narrow piece of iron will be left behind, out of which the back of the blade results. On this iron, the actual steel blade will be welded that one oteerwise grinds and polishes with just the same processes as the cutler. The blade is about three inchs broad and the whole knife is fifteen inches long. The appearence reveals in the illustration that the cross de will be bent a beit under the hammer on each end and recieves a head at d and e besides. In order to join it to the grip, one cuts it apart from b to e in the middle and chisels out a hole from b to h into which a tenon of the grip ab fits. When both halves heated are closed on each other, then one can slide the bar on the grip and then join the halves of the piece together again with a few rivets. In just this manner the bar will also be joined with the grip. All of this is the easiest part of the manufacture of a field knife. The most difficulty is making the raised designs, and for this work one gives a applying master a half years time. It is self explanatory, that the first task of the sword cutlermust be to sketch out the designs that he wants to cut out on the grip. The throat of the lion's head he cuts out with a chisel, and with the same instrument he must also chisel out some of the iron around the perimeter of the designs, so that the traced designs stand raised in the rough. In the forming of these designs the practiced hand and finness in drawing with the aid of gravers and punchs counts for everthing. Just this applies also to the raised designs on the bar ed. Allof these designs have reference to the hunt. The scabbard will indeed usually be assembled from wood but partly next to the large scabbard, five smaller ik will begin, some will beat iron sheet completely around the scabbardm and the ends will be soldered together. On this iron covering of the scabbard, the sword cutler cuts out a few hunting scenes also. In the small scabbards ik three knives, a fork, and a bodkin are placed. THe handles of all these pieces will be finished in miniature just like the grip of the hunting knife and one gives them the same form. The tip of the bodkin is rectangular and has a rectangular hole into which the hunter pulls yarn when he wants to repair his hunting nets.V. The jealousy of the related artisans against each other is well enough known only with a few it is particularly visible. Precisely the latter case exists between the sword furbisher and the sword cutler. Each of these artisans maintain that they are the older and attribute the name of the so called FUSCHER to the members of the other. Fortunately it is very indifferent to the purchaser whether his sword is purchased from a sword furbisher or a sword cutler since one doesn't make them better than the other if both are similarly skilled. Both artisans teach their apprentices in four years if they pay an apprentice fee, without that he must endure five or six years. The journeymen of the sword furbisher rate it a great honor if they have seen many foreign lands and this is the easier to do because they find everywhere related artisans and because these offer every arriving journeyman one Reichs thaler and eight Grosschen for a present. In the meantime the journeymen of the sword cutlers must also travel for the usual three years and one gives them the same gift at each city likewise. A sword furbisher makes two hilts for a sword and a hilt for a hanger for a masterpiece. The sword cutler shows his skill indeed by a sword hilt only, but he must in contrast eehibit to his guild the hunting knife described above. With both artisans the rising master is required to manufacture the patterns for the sword hilts himself.
Harold // 2:39 PM
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------TRADES AND ARTS The Windlass MakerCopyright: Harold B. Gill, III 1992.P. N. Sprengel'sTrades and Arts Volume 6 Section 4"The Windlass Maker"I. Contents. The familiar jack (windlass) WAGENWINDE and all similar lifting jacks have given these artisans their name. [Translator's note: The word WINDE has a multitude of possible translations including hoist, crane, windlass, crab, worm, winch, reel, or winder, depending on the usage. It is therefore highly recommended that the plate be used as a reference.] It also appears that the normal windlass maker aside from a few small pieces, makes nothing but windlasses (lifting jacks). Since they acquire a skill in the finishing of gear works RADERWERKE, thus it does not fall hard on a clever master to manufacture all iron machines for the factory. Berlin has only one windlass maker but luckily he belongs to the latter group because he made all the machines of the mint for example. The skills of the blacksmith and the locksmith must be united in the windlass maker since he draws the large pieces of iron under the hammer and his hand must also have enough skill to work gears and other small pieces cold with the chisel and the file.II. It is understood that the iron is the most important purchase of the windlass maker. Small wheels and gears would subjected to great wear if one forged them from a brittle metal all the more so since they will be finished cold for the most part. Therefore the windlass maker requires only the Swedish iron. Steel, he purchases merely for making his tools. The local windlass maker chooses Tyrol steel particularly for his use because it has a superior hardness when the master understands the art of suitably welding it. It might be. As much is certain however too that each professionhas its special needs that sticks to habit. III. He who has looked around in the workshop of the blacksmith and locksmith is also familiar with most of the tools of this profession also. Merely the working of the wheels and gears must be illumined by a few tools that one only needs to append to the others.A. The smith's forge of the windlass maker must be at least as large as the forge of the blacksmith they often forge screws and cylinders that are a few CENTNER (hundred weight). Therefore often it happens that their forge in the work shop is not spacious enough for heating the larger pieces and that they must take recourse to a larger forge that they construct in the yard under a roof. The hearth of this forgejust stands next to a wall on which a large bellows opens. If circumstances allow though, the artisan prefers to let the large pieces be forged out on a iron hammer (trip hammer) EISENHAMMER. Sledge hammers belong to the forge that weigh thirty to forty pounds and all other hammers and smith's tongs of the blacksmith. B. With the TRIEBHAMMER Plate III Figure I that is similar to a SCHROTHAMMER with a flat edge, the artisan the first slot in the bar of a solid gear.C. The sheet metal hollow gear measure HOHLTRIEBMAASS Figure II has a few pegs ZAPFEN on each side and next to each peg a point stands on the sheet at a little distance. The windlass maker grasps two rods of a gear between two pegs ab if he wants to measure their interval and he defines the space between the two rods STAEBE through both the points c, d. One has discovered by experience the interval of the rods STAEBE of a gear for each size of windlass (jack) and carried them off ABGETRAGEN on a sheet. The size of the windlass is defined by the number of teeth on its gear though. Therefore, a windlass is called a "sixteener" is the wheel considered has sixteen teeth. The wheel (gear) of the smallest windlass (jack) usually receives 16, and the largest, 40 teeth. From this relation the strength of the gears GETRIEBE must also be guaged and therefore the windlass maker has a special hollow gear measure for each type of windlass from sixteen to forty teeth. D. If the rods of a gear are cut out with an ordinary chisel then one smooths them wiht the tip of a scraping crook SCHABEKRUGE Figure III that is exactly the same as the scraping iron of the silver and brass workers. E. The compass LAUFCIRKEL Figure IV of the windlass maker has tips bent at a right angle a, b since the artisan grasps the axle of a wheel or gear with both tips when he wants to find their center point. F. The wheel stamp (die) Figure V is no different from an ordinary hammer other than that its face is round and that instead of a peen it has a head in order forit to be driven with a hammer when one wants to deepen the circle on the wheel. G. With the spring compass Figure VI the windlass maker divides the teeth of the gear. It is an ordinary compass onto one of whose shanks an iron bow is fastened in the middle that pierces the other shank. A glance at the illustration shows that the latter slides onto the bow and can be fastened with a screw. H. The wheel (gear) hammer RAEDERHAMMER Figure VII is basically a stout chisel with a broad edge that is cut off along a pointed angle. From this results a small narrow edge (a) with which the teeth of the gear will be cut out. J. During the forging of the bars in the widlass, the artisan measures their strength with the bar guage STANGENMAASS Figure VIII. The slot ab of this piece of metal shows the breadth and cd the thickness of the bar that one wants to examine with this guage. It is self-explanatory that a large windlass receives a stronger bar than a small one and that thus to each type of windlass, a special bar guage will be provided. K. The peen of the bar hammer Figure IX is cut away obliquely in just the same manner as the gear hammer since one cuts out the teeth of the bar of a windlass likewise with the narrow edge (a). With a chisel that has just such a tip as the bar hammer and that one call the cutter, the teeth will be formed out further. L. The sleeve guage SCHIEBEMAASS Figure X consists of a small rectangular iron bar ab on which a case cd is slid, and can be fastened by a screw e. The bar has tenons at a nad b as does the case HUELSE at d and f and one fastens the bar of a windlass between the tenons of the small bar of the sleeve guage and that of the case when one wants to discover the strength of the bar being worked in the windlass. If the windlass maker can let the bar be polished in a grinding mill then he delivers the bar guage as well with which he defines the proper strength of the bar. M. With the half round stamp Figure XI, a hammer-shaped chisel with a curved cutting edge, the round holes on the sheet iron will be cut out and with the N. Lay out guage AUFSETZMAASS Figure XII the artisan finds the spot where he should open the mortise one the housing GEHAEUSE of the windlass. There are also as many types of these pieces of metal as there are types of windlass. The round opening indicates the spot for the mortise of the tenon. O. The bit Figure XIII has either different edges on its side surfaces 1, or also more slots thickly next to each other 2 since the holes of the box into which the tenons of the wheels run will be smoothed with this instrument. One its tenon one places a turning iron during use. Volume V, page 11. P. The clamp Figure XIV is a small iron clamp of the joiner, and with this one holds the housing of a windlass together when the inner parts are fitted in. Q. In the manufacture of the wooden sticks on which the windlass is fastened the windlass maker uses a few tools of the wood worker. To these belong among others a normal wood borer, to drill out the hole into which the bar moves and a half round shaft iron STAEMMEISEN in order to widen the hole. The edge of the cherry wood chisel KIRFTHOLZMEISSEL Figure XV is bent into a knee and with this a groove will be chiseled out on the side of the block of the foot windlass into which the foot moves the bar.IV. The reason will be given below of why one stays with just the work of the ordinary jack making and to these belong particularly A. The jack WINDE wiith which one commonly raises or pulls a freight. The mechanism of the jack that sets their bar in motion consists either of a wheel and two gears or instead of one of the gears, an endless screw grips into the wheel. Moreover there are still other jacks that have a screw instead of the bar. From this it follows that a three-fold sort of jack exists of which the first are again divided into three types. a) Therefore first the text will be concerned with ordinary jacks with which the bar are moved by a wheel and two gears and these receive the names wagon jacks, foot jacks and windlass according to their use. The mechanism is the same for all three types besides a few small variations that are important for their purpose. A. The wagon jack that when it is very large is also called a cart jack is well enough known in day-to-day life. Because who doesn't know that the waggoners and carters carry a jack with them with which they jack up the wagon or trees as well? They are usually the smallest of their sort. One such jack consists of a sheet metal housing Figure XVI ab cd in which the gear works are fastened and a wooden block, that is omitted in Figure XVI but in contrast is presented in the foot jack FUSSWINDE Figure XVIII at de. Figure XVI thus merely presents the open housing, but Figure XVIII shows the housing assembled with the block ed. The inner parts are the most important and the description will therefore be begun with them most fittingly. So that the reader constantly has the intention of each part in view during the following text, thus the mechanism will be premised. Figure XVI fg is a solid gear whose rods grip in the teeth of the cog wheel h. With this the gear i makes the whole since both parts are placed on a common axle WELLE kl. The rods of the gear i grip in the teeth of the bar mn. Thus when a handle on the tenon g moves the gear fg so this sets the wheel h and the gear i in motion at the same time. The rods of this gear i raise the bar mn when one turns the handle mentioned to the right, in contrast it will move this same gear backwards if the hand turns the handle around to the left.This preliminary narrative has to be set forth initially on account of clarity before the making of the parts can be explained.a) It has often been said before, that the small gear Figure XVI fg is solid and therefore it will be forged in one piece with its axle. If the gear itself is to recieve four rods then one gives it the form of a cube under the hammer; if one will give it only three rods as the gear i shows sometimes then it recieves a triangular form. In both cases the windlass maker must measure off the size of the gear according to the size of the jack, as has already been illustrated above, according to the number of teeth of the wheel h. Usually this wheel receives 24 teeth and it will be st forth with this number in the present description. Thus in order to find the established strength of the gear the windlass maker then measuresthe surfaces of the individual gear during the forging already to a certain extent with the hollow gear guage Figure II. Exactly in the middle between both the edges of each surface of the individual gear he makes a deep slot along the length with the flat edge of the gear hammer Figure I and through this hollows it out a bit in the space between two rods STAEBE. Since out of each corner of the triangular or square iron from which the gear is made a rod results. The gear will be laid on thiscold on the slot of a rectangular wood that the windlass maker calls a block wood STOCKHOLZ and it is fastened in the vice during use.Triangular gears lie in a triangular (slot), but rectangular (gears) lie in a rectangular slot of the wood block STOCKHOLZ. The interval between two corners will be hollowed out cold with a chisel and the corners will also be formed with this same instrument into round rods that that are merely connected below to the core of the gear. In this operation, the windlass maker measures the strength of the rods and their distance often with the hollow gear guage HOHLTRIEBMAASS Figure II. Each time he grasps two rods of the gear between both of the tenons a, b of the hollow gear guage and descends with the pioece of metal down the rods. The line ec and gd shows him the strength of the rod, and cd (shows) the distance betweeen the two rods. It is understood that for a jack whose wheel has twenty four teeth he must choose a hollow gear guage which is numbered "24" since each hollow gear guage has its number corresponding to the number and strength of the teeth of the wheel. THe rods of the gear do not admit a file for smoothing in their corners and therefore the artisan scrapes them smooth with the scraper Figure III. On the other hand, the axle of the gear along with its tenon, he can work with the file. Because the tenon must stand precisely on the center point of the axle so that the gear runs straight, thus it is important to find this point on each end of the axle. The windlass maker for this reason fastens the axle between both of the bent tips a, b of the compass LAUFCIRKEL Figure VI roughly on the axis of the axle, allows the gear to turn and holds a piece of chalk against the perimeter of the same gear. He measures with a compass whether more remains at one spot outside of the chalk circle as at another and continues this test until he finds the axis of the axle. In doing this, he must sometimes place the compass at other points, and sometimes take a bit off of the perimeter of the gear with the file. From the point in the axis of the axle he can now define the circumference of the round tenon with an ordinary compass.There is just this to be noted; theaxle Figure XVI ki of a tenon must be exactly as long up to the other, as the distance that both pieces of metal of the housing ab, cd take up, since the tenons run in the sheet metal of the housing. The tenon itself projects, though, on one side of the housing a little as one can see in Figure XVIII l and g. (l) is the tenon of the wheel h and g is the tenon of the gear fg (Figure XVI) that has a longer rectangular tip in order to that a handle Figure XVIIg can be put on and the machine can thus be put into motion.b) In just the same manner, the larger hollow gear (i) will also be joined with its axle and it only receives a rectangular tenon from the forging on one side where it joins with the wheel h onto which (tenon) the wheel is slid and rivetted. This single instance deserves to be mentioned that one either gives it four or just three rods. The jack (windlass) is not so durable and efficacious though if it receives three rods STAEBE.c) The wheel h thus sits on one axle kl with the gear i. The windlass makerdraws out a solid disk with the hammer for the wheel and defines its diameter first by eye. The one side of this wheel h that touchs the sheet cd in the illustration will be drawn out a bit thinner in a circle around the mid point so that thus the circumference of the wheel into which the teeth will be cut is about a quarter inch thicker than the middle. This has a dual purpose ; partly so that the wheel is not too heavy but also so that one creates spase for the box in which the common tenon of the wheel and the gear rides at l and that is rivettednext to the wheel on the sheet cd. The indentation of this wheel is hollowed out by the windlass maker with the wheel die Figure V, that he moves in a circle constantly and heads on the head with a hammer. For this operation the disk will be heated and its circumference takes on the indentation mentioned from this driving out (motion) AUSTREIBEN. After the forging, the compass must define the exact size of the wheel. The windlass maker has a ruler MAASSSTAB on which the diameter of the wheels from sixteen up to forty teeth are marked out. The diameter of a wheel h that receives 24 teeth has 4'' 8''' diameter; the gear on the axle fg is 1'' 4''' and the gear i is 5''' thick. The strength of the teeth will be determined handily by the spring compass Figure VI. If the wheel is to receive twenty four teeth, then one divides the circmference with the half diameter of the wheel first into six and each part will be further divided into four equal parts. The halves of each of these latter sections will be cut out with the tip (a) of the wheel cutter Figure VII which one drives with the hammer and each tooth will be formed out into its particular size with the half round and "cornered" files completely. Around the center point of the wheel, the artisan cuts out a rectangular (square hole) that is just as large as the rectangular tenon mentioned above on the gear i. One already knows, that the wheel is placed onto this tenon and it is thus only still to be joined so that the edges of the tenon will be driven against the wheel with the hammer so that it holds the wheel tightly. Finally the windlass maker must engage in the same test with the Running compass LAUFCIRKEL Figure IV that has already been described above and the common axle along wiht its tenon will be finished with the file according to the description above. Page 122.d) The breadth and thickness of the bar mn below the gear i the windlass maker defines during the forging with the bar guage Figure VIII that in this example indicates the strength of a bar for a jack whose wheel has twenty four teeth corresponding to the description above (page 117). At n they it receives a head from the forging so that it will not be spun out ot the jack from the gear h. Since an iron that will be described further below, holds the bar back on this head when it is wound high enough (Into the heights, literally). At Figure XVIII m the hammer and the file give the bar a tenon onto which an ordinary forged and bent iron which is called a fork is placed and rivetted onto the tenon. This occurs however first after the assembly of all the parts. The windlass maker measures off the teeth of the bar with just the same hollow gear guage Figure II with which he defines the interval of the teeth of the gear fg. The space between the teeth, he cuts with the edge (a) of the bar cutter STANGENHAUER Figure IX and brings it to completion with the chisel and the file. In order that the bar is not thicker from this work at one spot moreso than another, however, he often checks its strength with the sliding guage Figure X page 117.The bar as well as the wheel along with the gears in the jack are subjected to a great force and it is therefore important that they be hardened or, to speak as the artisan does, be set in EINSETZEN. The windlass maker mixes fust from the forge and powdered ox hooves that are burned brown in a baking oven, moistens them with urine in a cask and keeps this mass for the continual use. If a wheel or gear is to be hardened, then they fill a sheet metal box with the material mentioned, places the wheel completely within it, seals the box with a lid, covers it with loam, and covers it for two hours in the glowing coals. After the passing of this time the wheels will be cooled off in water. For the bars, the artisan just fills a longish rectangular open case with just the same material, places the bar into it covers the case with coals and lets it stand in the heat two hours. They will finally be placed in cold water. After the hardening one polishes the pieces first with a sand stone and then with the file as well as possible. If a grinding mill is at the place where the windlass maker resides, then one can let the bars be ground off.c) The housing of the jack consists of two equal sized pieces of sheet metal ab, cd that are called covers DECKEL by the artisan and that will be held together by four transverse irons QUEREISEN. The pieces of metal one forges from solid iron and the four transverse irons mentioned of which only three Figure XVI ac, op, qr can be seen in the illustration are about a half inch broad and half as thick. On each end, these irons that the windlass maker calls STEFTE receive a tenon that penetrates a sheet of the housing. The tenon in the sheet ab will be rivetted to the same only a hole will be bored through the tip of the tenon on the side cd, into which a pin or, according to the expression of the artisan, a SCHLUFE is placed so that the housing can be taken apart. The most important thing in this is that two STEFTE above and below be placed precisely so far from each other as the breadth of the rod mn takes up since the eye will notice in the illustration that the bar moves between these STEFTEN. In order, however, that the bar be completely immobile, thus a piece of iron s,t will be rivetted on between both the upper Steften ac, op on each sheet of the housing which are called the cruppers KRUPPEN and these are exactly as far from one another as the thickness of the bar mn. Underneath the bar leans against the wheel h and therefore a tenon only needs to be rivetted in the sheet ab that extends up to the bar. Figure XVII presents the sheet ab separately where one can see this tenon at u. With a bit of reflection, one will easily perceive from the description that the bar will be toltally enclosed from all sides and is immovable. The thin sheet ab, cd affords no convenient mortise for the axles fg, kl and therefore a strong piece of iron must be rivetted on each sheet of the housing. On the inner surfaces of the sheet there is a piece of iron vwq for this purpose which the windlass maker calls the double ring since it has two boxes or holes for the tenons f and k. In forging the hammer beats the iron a bit thinner at v, w, q, and a mandrel pierces these points and at the same time pierces the sheet ab at its spot in order to join the double ring with the sheet ab by means of three rivets. Along the gap of the centerlines of both axles a hole will be driven with a drift in the heated metal at f and k and with the bit Figure XIII aided by a turning iron WINDEISEN, will be bored out or polished. From this it is clear that these holes must be precisely as large as the tenons f and k. The double ring with both its holes will be clearly visible in Figure XVII vwq. On the other hand, the windlass maker rivets a small but thicker forged piece of iron on the outer side of the outer surface of the sheet cd for just this reason which he calls the knob KNAUF. In Figure XVIII one will clearly recognize this piece of metal at x. The tenon l pierces merely the side sheet and the knob KNAUF and the artisan cuts the hole out with the half round chisel HAUER Figure XI. He must, however, find this hole and also the hole g with the "Lay out" guage AUFSETZMAASS Figure XII beforehand in the manner described above. The tenon g in Figure XVI and XVIII carries the handle. It therefore must not only be somewhat long but also its mortise is also subjected to the force of the person that turns the handle. Thus it is important that the mortise be reinforced. for this purpose the tenon does not run in just the two pieces of metal but also in a small bearing that one will notice at r in Figure XVI. The windlass maker calls this bearing the ring. He drives it out from the heated knob xz with the hammer whose round perimeter has the size of the ring. The hammer forms the ring with a bottom and the latter must therefore be cut out wiht a half round chisel Figure XI. In the hollow ring one sets a second ring besides, the bearing, and the circumference of the hole of the latter ring corresponds precisely with the strength (diameter) of its tenon. It will be smoothed out likewise with a drill bit BOHRER Figure XIII. The manufacture of the handle g is no great difficulty. With this type of jack a hook with joint will be fastened on the piece of metal cd with which one can hold the handle tightly if the jack is to rest beneath a burden Figure XX A.Now all of the parts of the jack will be assembled. Both of the two axles Figure XVI fg, kl will be set into the ring vq and onto the side sheet cd on their tenons. The rod mn will be placed between the STEFTE ae, op, qr and just these same STEFTE will join the two sheets ab and cd of the housing. Before the complete assembly however, the windlass maker screws the housing together with the clamp Figure XIV in order to discover whether the parts fit precisely into each other and the files remove all errors in this department. One sets these parts together in vain though, before the gears along with the rod have been hardened, and lift a large burden with the jack in order to test whether or not they work suitably.f) As the beginning of this description says the jack will be fastened to a three foot high piece of wood that is called the block STOCK. This block is indicated in Figure XVIII by de. On the end of the block ab, cd a piece will be chiseled out with the wood chisel that is as large as the breadth of the inner parts of the jack taken together. On these ends their thus only remains two narrow pieces of wood that are covered by the piece of metal ad in the illustration. The jack will be pushed into this opening and fastened with a ring at ac. However a hole B will be bored in the lower part de of the block beforehand and widened with a chisel. This hole gives the rod mn space to move freely. ON the foot e of the jack, the windlass maker hammers on a piece of metal and through this, a few pins besides so that the jack will not stand directly on the earth during use. Besides this he drives yet another ring at e and in the middle on the block so that it will not split easily.B. The foot jack FUSSWINDE Figure XIX is only distinguished from the former by the single piece, that the bar has a foot c or a strong catch on the lower end. So that this foot is not hindered by the block in its motion, thus a groove is hollowed out with the cherry chisel KIRSTMEISSEL Figure XV on one side of the block in which the foot moves freely. The stone cutter and the carpenter lift heavy loads with this jack.C. The tackle (windlass) ZUGWINDE Figure XX likewise differs little from the wagon jack. It receives one or also two rods STANGEN.a) Those that receive two rods will be dealt with first. THe small gear must enter precisely in the middle so that it does not preventboth of the rods from moving. If the handle f is thus turned to the right and the gear fg sets the wheel h and the second gear i in motion thus both the feet of the rods mn, op draw nearer and reversed they grow more distant. In the working of the parts theyr is nothing further to be mentioned other than that each rod recieves a catch or foot at m and p. The carriage maker bends bars and beams between the feet of these windlasses as one uses these windlasses to advantage in day to day life when bodies need to be clamped together such as two square stones QUADERSTEINE.b) The simple windlass has only one bar with a foot. The other foot will be fastened to the housing. Otherwise all remains the sam as with the wagon jack. Both types of windlasses receive no wooden block but rather the housing is closed on all sides.Note: Merely to satisfy the curiosity, one has allowed a jack to be illustrated in Figure XXI with which the ancients clamped the bow string o their bows. They have just the same inner parts as the wagon jack. Since ab is the single gear that is moved at a by means of a small handle; cd is the large wheel that holds together with the gear ef. This latter (gear) moves the bar gh that is fastened by a ring on the bowand grips the bow string at h. The cover on the wheel cd is ik.b) The jack which moves by means of an endless screw are not common in this area in spite of the fact that they work much more powerfully than those described above. Those who understand mechanics know, however, that they express their power much more slowly than the common jacks. The simplest jacks of this type certainly have a normal bar but, instead of a separate gear in the foregoing jacks, a screw. Between the two sheets of the housing ab and cd in Figure XXII a screw ef runs and its tenon e carries the handle. Its screw threads grip into a cog wheel gh which as is wheel known has obliquily turned teeth. The wheel is places as with the former jacks along wiht the gear i on an axle, that consist of two separate transvers rods between the sheet metal of the housing of which only the rearmost could be illustrated if the remaining parts were to be clearly seen. The rods of the gear i catch the teeth of the bar mn and sets it into motion. This will as with the former jacks, be enclosed by foru STEFTEN ac, bd, That at the same time hold the housing together. Up to the screw ef and the wheel gh, all the parts will be made the same way as the foregoing types of jacks. The three screwthreads of the screw ef are measured off by the windlass maker as well as is practical and are chiselled out with a chisel. The intervals between the teeth he also finds by repeatedly measuring and he cuts these hot with the gear hammer Figure VII. The assembly of the parts differs in no way from that described above.c) The strongest force is exerted by those jacks that are not just set in motion by an endless screw but rather have a strong screw in place of the bar of the former jacks as well. One therefore uses these jacks in order to raise a building up for a repair. Between the two pieces of sheet metal of the housing (Figure XXIII ab, cd), a screw with three screw threads ef runs and grips into a cog wheel with aoblique teeth gh. This holds together by means of a strong and round nut ikl that the windlass maker calls the foot and that runs perpendicularlyy by means of its tenonk in the hole of the mortise ZAPFENLAGER mn. In the nut ikl a strong screw op is placed. Thus when the handle at e is turned around to the right and the screw ef moves, this sets the wheel gh and attached nut ikl in motion thus lifting the screw threads of the latter screw op. If the handle e is turned to the left then the screw op reverses. The manufacture of most of the parts of this jack are comprehensible from the foregoing description, but not the origin of the nut ilk and the screw op. Both pieces will certainly be forged in the usual manner but since the screw is sometimes a few inches thick, then they cannot be cut along with their nut easily with the normal screw cutting die of the other metal workers. Even less can one bring this instrument to bear in the case of the large screws of the machines in the mint, that sometimes weigh a few hundred weight CENTNER. Therefore it follows that the ordinary screws that can be cut with the ordinary dies have a sharp threading, on the other hand these screws receive a flat threading or to speak plainly the threading that goes around the shaft of the screw is square in the latter case. These screws are much more durable than the former type but their manufacture is also more elaborate. Skillful windlass makers turn the screw down first on a lathe and cut the screw threads with a particular machine. The latter applies also the the nut, when the hole is punched beforehand. One could not persuade the local windlass maker though, to make his lathe and cutting machine known by means of an illustration. He is the only one in the local area that possesses this machine and it would remove from him a part of his sustenance if this machine were to be made commmon knowledge. Meanwhile the windlass makers in Augsburg, Hamburg, and Nuremberg do not lack machines of this type. Those who are acquainted with the trade KUNSTVERSTAENDIGEN perhaps will not find it difficult to invent such a machine themselves if they originate a mechanism that sets the spindel that one wants to cut, into motion along with a strong "goat's foot" (chisel) GEISFUSS with which one cuts the wooden screws. The ordinary locksmith measures the threads as well as possible on the iron spindle and hollows the screw threads out with the chisel. The screw admittedly will not be so exact as when it is cut with the screw cutting dies. The nut is left to be cast by the brass workers over the screw from brass.From the description of the jack, the other ordinary operations of the windlass maker are easy to clarify.B. Among these is the rope makers apparatus with which the rope maker draws his rope Figure XXIV. The housing consists of two pieces of sheet metal ab, cd that hold the inner parts together. The largest cog wheel ef recieves twenty four teeth, and sets four gears into motion of which only two are to be seen in Figure XXIV gh, bc. On the other hand they are represented in Figure XXV at g,h,i,k, which only presents one piece of sheet metal with the inner part. The both of the others have exactly the same position on the opposite side of the wheel in Figure XXIV. A longish, pointed tenon of the wheel and the four gears pierces the piece of sheet metal and, after the assembly of the whole, the tip of this tenon will be bent into a hook which holds the strands of the rope together during manufacture. The hook will be seen clearly enough on the piece of sheet metal ab. The housing will be held together by four pins lm, no, as with the jack. Thus when the handle p on the tenon of the wheel ef sets the machine in motion then the four gears, each of which has four rods, turn around six times at the same time as the wheel which has twenty four teeth makes a single revolution. One can also place the handle on the tenon of the axle of one of the gears, however, and in this case the wheel turns six times more slowly than before with each turn of the handle. The wheel and the four gears, the windlass maker works in the same manner as the similar parts of a jack and the tenon of the axle receives the same mortise also which has already been described above. Page 129.C. The contents of this section have already shown that the iron presses also originate in the workshops of the windlass maker. One of the smallest is the seal-press Figure XXVI with which one presses out a seal in wax or wafer. abcde is called the frame of the press and bd is called the stem STEG. The iron c of the frame pierces a screw fg with which is attached a rectangular slide SCHIEBER gh. This can be pushed into a perpendicular hole i of the stem and carries a seal k below. The small key lm sets the screw fg in motion. The frame abcde will be bent hot into its form on the edge of the anvil with the hammer from a small forged bar as the illustration shows. The complete frame must now stand completely perpendicular. At a and e the hammer gives the frame tenons from which the windlass maker makes screws with the usual screw cutting die. With the same instrument two nuts also receive screw threads and with these and the screws mentioned the frame will be fastened to a strong board ae. Before the assembly of these two pieces the windlass maker sinks an iron plate op into the board that is about a half an inch thick and pierces it at c and p with a drift so that it is held tightly by both of the screws a and e at the same time with the frame on the board. In the forging of the frame a strong piece remains that will be formed out round with the hammer and the file. The windlass maker calls this projecting part of the box the core, pierces it perpendicularly with the drift and gives the hole flat screw threads. Exactly the same applies to the manufacture of this and the screw fg as has already been explained above about the screw and nut of the last jack WINDE, page 135, that the windlass maker cuts them with a machine. The key lm will be forged in the normal way and placed on a tenon of the screw f. In the middle of the stem bd STEG the artisan can leave a strong rectangular tenon i standing during the forging, pierces it perpendicularly with a bit and widens the hole into a square shape with a square drift. The drift must have precisely the size of the slide gh so that this without wobbling can be slid in and out of the hole. On the inner surface of the frame a slot will be made at q and r with a file and this same instrument files a groove on each end of t6he stem that fits into the slot exactly. In this manner the stem will be securely joined to t e fram but one can take it off again. The assembly of the slide gh with the screw fg one has sought to make comprehensible by means of Figure XXVII. On the one end g of the slide, the windlass maker cuts out a rectangular hole with a chisel above which a narrow piece of iron gs remains. This he likewise slits in the middle t with a chisel. The screw fg receives a tenon on the lowest end from the file and beneath this a tin disk u from the same instrument that the artisan calls the throat (along with the tenon). The tenon must fit exactly into the slot t of the disk and the disk u is just large enough that it can comfortably turn in the rectangular {square} hole of the slide. Now it is entirely clear that the screw fg can turn around without being hindered by the slide gh and that the throat of the screw s nevertheless lifts the slide gh. In the middle of the base surface of the slide h a hole will be drilled and widened by a rectangular drift in order toi place the tenon of the seal k in this hole and hold it tightly with a small screw at h in the slide. In the manufacture of the seal the file must do most of the work since this small press will mainly be of a highly decorated style for example the die WUERFEL will receive architectural columns STABE.Note: In just this manner the screws of the large presses of the mint that are similar to the presses of the button makers (Volume 5 Plate V Figure VIII) are joined to their slides . The iron die r will therefore be made of two pieces placed together, in order to encase the throat of the screw in a hole of the die WUERFEL. The strongest screws and their brass nuts, the windlass maker cuts with the screw cutting machine. The housing is forged in the usual way. The cylinder of the drawing mill of the lead factory (Volume 4 Plate II Figure XI 11, 10.) will be forged from iro with the new drawing machine STRECKMASCHINE. After the forging the windlass maker turns it down on his lathe. The manufacture of the small parts have already been described for the most part in the description of the jacks. One has not stopped for these parts since the description would be incomplete with the abscence of knowledge of the turning and cutting machine. V. Guild regulations. The windlass maker belongs among the trad of the locksmiths. Their apprentices study for three years when they provide an apprentice fee without which they must study for five or six years though. Their journeymen receive no gift. The local windlass maker has made an ordinary wagon jack for a masterpiece but in Nuremberg an exact arm jack Figure XXI and a jack of the third type Figure XXIII must be presented to the trade guild for approval (or as an exam).[With this, I conclude the translation of the iron-related sections of Handwerke und Kuenste. These encompass all sections from Volume 5 Section 6 through Volume 7 Section 2 and Volume 7 Section 4. Finis. HBG III. April 1, 1992.]
Harold // 2:38 PM
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Tuesday, November 27, 2001:

And here, below, I begin the republication of my work on "Handwerke und Künste in Tabellen"TRADES AND ARTS Acknowledgements The production of this ambitious translation would not have been possible without the assistance of many individuals. Had it not been for the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation's commitment to the preservation of historic trades, the translator would never have been exposed to Handwerke und Kuenste. The acquisition of a microfilm copy from the Butler Library of Columbia University by the Central Library of Colonial Williamsburg gave the translator access to the material. The translator is indebted to the following persons for their guidance and support during the making of these transalations and the related projects that have been derived from Handwerke und Kuenste. David Munn provided the greatest single impetus for the production of this volume through his gift to the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation which funded the rough translation of the first six of the seven translations included in this volume. Sven Dan Berg, Jr., John Caramia, Michael Kipps, Kenneth Schwarz, and Earl Soles, Jr., exerted considerable influence during the formative stages of this work. The staff of the Colonial Williamsburg Research Library rendered indispensible aid with unfailing patience; particulary Elizabeth Ackert, Susan Berg, Collen Harris, John Ingram, and Mary Keeling. My colleagues in the Department of Conservation at Colonial Williamsburg deserve particular mention for their interest and advice; particularly, F. Carey Howlett, J. P. Mullen, and John Watson. Great assistance was rendered by Harry C. Kahn, III by way of his thorough proof-reading of much of this work and by Thomas McGeary of Champaign, Ilinois for his assistance in tracking down often elusive reference sources. Finally, the appearance of this collection of translations would not have occured with out the good offices of Jay Gaynor, Curator of Mechanical Arts at the Department of Collections of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. Financial support for the Scientific Instrument Maker translation was provided by the late Emil Pollack of The Astragal Press. The translator owes the largest debt, however, to his family for their patience, support, advice, not to mention materials and proof-reading; Harold B. Gill, Jr., Margaret S. Gill, Melissa D. Gill, and, particulary, his ex-wife, to whom this volume is gratefully dedicated, Heather Ann Hakel Gill. PREFACE: Presented in this volume are ten translations from Handwerke und Kuenste. Initiated by Peter Nathanael Sprengel during his tenure at the Realschul of Berlin in 1767, this handbook on the trades and arts was continued by his successor, Otto Ludwig Hartwig. The English translations contained in this collection are Hartwig's product taken from the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth volumes of the seventeen volume encyclopedia. Although Handwerke und Kuenste touches upon well over one hundred trades, this collection deals with those relating to metal work with the primary focus being those trades that deal with the working of iron. The first article is a brief description of a particular iron refinery on the outskirts of Berlin, an iron works at Neustadt-Eberswalde. This basic introduction to the material leads into an over view of the blacksmith's trade including the work of the farrier and armorer. Succeeding this is a lengthy and technically detailed discussion of locksmithing which closes with a brief look at decorative wrought iron work. Next, a short and direct discussion of the toolsmith's trade is given. The fifth and sixth selections are bound thematically by their focus on the manufacture of cutting instruments. They are the discussions of the cutler's trade and the surgical instrument maker's trade. The latter offers a piece by piece description of the anatomical dissection kit, surgeon's bandaging kit, and, finally, a look at the instruments required for the delicate operation of trepanning. The final and most lengthy section is the discussion of the trade of the "Mechanicus" or scientific instrument maker. Appended to this on-line version are three further chapters dealing with Spur making, Sword furbishing and cutlery, and Windlass or Jack making. The information in each section is arranged into a introduction to the trade, its materials, its tools, and then its products and their method of manufacture. Each closes with a brief discussion of the guilds and their requirements for apprentices, journeymen, and masters. This arrangement was expedient since the original book was designed to acquaint the apprentice with the trade in order that he might be in a better position to choose his career with success. The information contained was gathered by the editors by interviews conducted in the workshops in and around Berlin. In this way, it was hoped that the most practical textbook yet produced for instruction on the trades could be produced. The first two volumes produced by Peter Sprengel are extremely spare treatises delivered in a rigid outline form. The succeeding fourteen volumes are a great deal more detailed and their chapters are grouped together by trade type. If it was produced today, this might seem a mundane or pedestrian publication but, as Peter Sprengel pointed out in the preface to the first volume, one would be quite mistaken to believe that a well established system was in place by which an informed choice could be made regarding one's career in eighteenth-century Prussia. In other words, Handwerke und Kuenste was revolutionary in 1767. It was not alone, however. The towering effigy of Diderot and his great encyclopedia, a symbol of the Age of Enlightenment, will come to mind when one thinks of technical encyclopedias from the eighteenth century. Diderot and the Encyclopediests efforts were mirrored by the French Academy of Arts and Sciences' Descriptions des Arts et Metiers. In fact, Sprengel drew on this last work via its German translation Schauplatz des Kuenst und Handwerke. These authors did not work in a vacuum. Even Diderot's monumental achievement began as a French translation from the English Cyclopedia by Ephraim Chambers. These works' interdependence is one reason that Handwerke und Kuenste is more than just a milestone in industrial education. For historians of technology, economy, and particularly of society, Handwerke und Kuenste provides a window on Europe at the dawn of the industrial revolution. In a very direct way, it allows the reader to sit inside of the classroom in the Realschul at the close of the the third quarter of the eighteenth century. At the outset of his work, Peter Sprengel referred to his "enlightened century," contrasting that term with the state of preparedness of Prussian youth for the challenges of the rapidly changing world of industry, his purpose being to augment this preparedness by means of a textbook worthy of the times and the result was exceptional. Although Handwerke und Kuenste was contemporary to Diderot and Alembert's Encyclopedie, it is unique for its detailed descriptions of the state of technology. Sprengel and Hartwig took their observations directly from the workshops into the classroom, providing an immediacy that is not attained in any of the contemporary writings to which this translator has had access. Even more striking is the consistant high quality of the detail in the narrative throughout the broad scope of the work, for, even though the present collection provides only seven treatises, the entire seventeen volume work covers in excess of one hundred and fifty occupations. Therefore, taken as a whole, Handwerke und Kuenste may well make a larger contribution to the understanding of eighteenth-century technology than any other source available. The events that surround these treatises included the initial upsurge of the technology that drives our culture today. What can be gathered from the reflections of these teachers of 220 years ago, can tell us a great deal about how we have arrived at this point today. It can give us insight into the driving forces that propelled us from an agrarian society to an industrial one. Handwerke und Kuenste also offers an understanding of the humanist philosophy that charged the inhuman energy of the Industrial Revolution with enthusiasm, optimism and even cathartic exhiliration as it gained momentum. Hartwig and Sprengel were infused with the confidence that their project would allow every apprentice to achieve the greatest happiness that his potential allowed and, by extension, that industry could produce the greatest happiness for humanity. The old German adage is "Arbeit macht das Leben suess" or "Work makes life sweet." More than that, Sprengel implies that informed choices make the adage a reality. Here he provides the information. One can only imagine the impact that it had on the workers of his time. If, as another adage goes, "Knowledge is power" then Sprengel and Hartwig empowered a generation or more of Prussian youth. Those youths undoubtedly included many who were instrumental in making Germany an industrial power rivalling England in the nineteenth century. Some of the most enduring effects are those wrought through education. So it is that in many areas, these translations will offer an education; a small window through which to peer. The room within, if entered, offers more windows and thus the opportunities for exploration are endless. It is the translator's hope that the offerings within this cover will open windows and will give rise to more discovery and greater understanding. If nothing else, the novelty of these very open descriptions of processes and products emanating from proto-industrial workshops of eighteenth-century Prussia may create a particular delight for the antiquarian, the historian, the tradesman, or any reader with patience and imagination.
Harold // 2:28 PM
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Here I preserve an old translation that I worked on some time ago.Von denen GewehrfabrikenCopyright: Harold B. Gill, III; 1991 Harold B. Gill, III: translator October 20, 1991 Introduction to Translation of Vollstaendige Abhandlung von denen Manufacturen und Fabriken, Zweiter Teil, welcher alle einzelne Manufacturen und Fabriken nach der Eintheilung ihrer Materialen abhandelt. Von Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi, Konigl. Grossbittanischen Bergrathe und Ober-Policei-Commissario, wie auch Mitglied der Konigl. Grossbrittanischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften daselbst. Koppenhagen, Auf Kosten der Rothenschen Buchhandlung. 1761. Viertes Haupstueck "Von denen Gewehr Fabriken" The translator of this discussion of the arms factory in Europe first became aware of its existence during the translation of sections of Handwerke und Kuenste by Peter N. Sprengel and Otto L. Hartwig which dealt with the iron works at Neustadt-Eberswalde near Berlin and with the trade of locksmithing. Sections on Gunsmithing and Gunstocking published in The Journal of Historical Armsmaking Technology, Volume III in June, 1988 had first brought my attention to Handwerke und Kuenste which is an invaluable compilation of contemporary descriptions of eighteenth century trades practices. The account of the Gun Factory from that source published in the fourth volume of The Journal of Historical Armsmaking Technology is complimented by this translation presented here which predates Handwerke und Kuenste by about a decade. The nature of the two works are different in purpose. Whereas Sprengel's avowed intention was to document matters pertaining to the trades so that young men embarking on their careers could make informed decisions, von Justi seems to be writing to provide a base of understanding of the philosophy and history of various manufactures. He appeals to logic to illustrate the necessity of the factories, harkening back to the Roman Empire to show the dependence of the state upon her arms factories, for example. In the same illustration, von Justi throws a light on the origin of the practices of the guilds. Along with this interest in providing a sound foundation in the cause of industry, in this chapter von Justi also probes into the particulars of the process of producing Damascus steel, not just to treat the subject of what is known and actually done in Germany at the time as Sprengel and Hartwig would later, but rather he delves into speculating about the hitherto mysterious processes that produce its remarkable properties. Certainly he is not giving us insights of which we are not aware scientifically speaking, but, of more importance, he tells us what he understands. This is important not only in giving us insight into what were the eighteenth century man's understanding of manufacturing processes, but also we are allowed to gain an understanding of the way in which the intellectual world viewed the material world in general. Too often the the aspects of the historical record are studied in a vacuum; apart from the pull and tug of the various factors that shape their form and steer their course through time. This oversight is surely as fatal to the understanding of the historical record as ignoring the moon is fatal to understanding the tides. Writers such as Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi cause us to look at the moon to show us the tides and thus give us a greater appreciation and understanding of those processes and products that we are so interested in studying. The translation of this small part of Vollstaendige Abhandlung von denen Manufacturen und Fabriken is one lesson in a series of lectures that von Justi stands poised to deliver dealing with philosophical, economic, political, and technical aspects of the manufactures and factories of Europe in the mid eighteenth century. This is all the more exciting since the time from which these lectures are given is a major turning point in the history of technology; a time when the industrialization of Europe was in its infancy; a time that became a major demarcation in the history of mankind. The multi-faceted interests of von Justi are reflected in the wide ranging narrative on arms factories and suggested strongly by his string of titles and posts in the British government. Such a variety of experience contributes greatly to the depth of understanding that can be imparted by the author. It is to be hoped that the deficiencies of the translator will not greatly detract from the benefit that is to be garnered from this source. Complete Essay of the Manufactures and Factories. Second Part, which treats all individual manufactures and factories according to the classification of their materials. by Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi Royal British Counsellor of Mines and Supreme Police Commisioner, also Fellow of the Royal British Society of Science.Copenhagen At the Expense of the Rothenschen Book Store 1761 page 370 Fourth Chapter "About the Arms Factory" The state has an army for its defense and these require weapons. For the purpose of defense, it would agreeably trade a good industry even with these rules, if it found it were of importance that it could purchase these weopons from another country. It could happen for a time, which would amount to nothing for it (the State), just as it lets money go to foreign countries in a needless fashion, and nourishes the subjects of a foreign state that could become its enemy. Besides, the private citizens want many guns as well. Every well-to-do citizen wants to have his fire-arm and each bedecks himself with a sword just as though every one is ready to cut the throat of his fellow citizen; although the foolishness of carrying guns for ornamentation is already diminished greatly because it is now no advantage to being able to carry a sword. One one deprives the foolishness of the motive of frovolity and superiority, then it will, of itself, become reasonable. In the meantime, the market for weapons among the private citizens is still very great and the arms factories in this country are all the more indespensible. All these basic reasons also have illuminated the eyes of the government sufficiently. Today, there is scarcely a country of middling size that does not have its page 371 arms factory and Germany has borne in it as many as other European empires. Potsdam, Herzberg, Dresden, Suhla, Solingen, Luttich, and so many other cities provide very good weapons from their factories. If it is always necessary to construct factories in large cohesive arrangements, then it is most necessary with the arms factories. The weapon consists either of many pieces, or else must be the result of many operations invlved in making it. Long experience has shown that the operations, particularly in the fire, take place much more speedily and handily if a few workers not as such and others perform those particular operations and work hand in hand as it were. Besides the work can be facilitated very greatly in these arms factories by means of machines and other measures that are not part of an individual master's business. The state can also be all the more assured of the quality and uniformity of weapons for their armies if all is done uder one and the same supervision. Also this has been examined; the arms factories everywhere have been constructed as large institutions. If at a few places, there is no single unified institution, then each master applies himself principly to only the same particular operation and there are publishers or sales people who assemble the individual parts and can make complete weapons from them. The necessity page 372 of large arms factories has been recognized by the Romans and other people of antiquity. The Romans had an arms factory of very great extent at Trier in Germany and they appear to have coupled with it a certain type of secrecy because the armourers working there were bound for life. To this end, these armourers would be branded with certain distinguishing marks and the admission into their guild occured with manifold, and partly ridiculous, ceremonies with which the source of those ceremonies and practices of the craftsmen apparently can be found. There are very many types of weapons. One can separate them into two main categories, however, namely the firearms and slashing or stabbing weapons. In a broad sense, the cannons, mortars, all types of crude ordnance are understood to be included among the firearms. However, because we have already dealt with ordnance foundry work in the previous chapter, thus here are only the firearms in a narrow sense, or the text about the small firearms which include rifles, muskets, fowling pieces, and pistols. To the other class of slashing and stabbing weapons belong sabers, broad swords, and other swords, bayonets, daggers, spontoons, halberds HELLEPARDEN, halberds KURZGEWEHR, lances, pikes, and the like. We will mention the most important of each major type. Page 373 The quality of a fire arm comes from very many different particulars. Not only must the best and most malleable iron be taken for it, so that it not only receives no cracks during the boring, but also that it endures the boring without the barrel coming out too thick and consequently too heavy and unwieldy. Nevertheless, the barrel also must not be in danger of blowing up in spite of having a moderate weight. The boring must especially happen with accuracy most of all because and unevenness and flaw inside will make the entire gun incapable of being aimed. The breadth of the muzzle must have an exact relation with the length and thickness of the barrel if a weapon is to shoot well appropriately to its final purpose. There is no doubt that this cannot be conveyed by such certain and indubitable principles as the mathematical theorems themselves are which one must apply here. Only in this perhaps most of the flaws show up in the firearms of the army because those who determine the caliber and structure of the firearms for the army seldom possess the knowledge and insight beyond that necessary so good soldiers want them anyway. In regard to the lock, the quality of a firearm depends principly upon the quality of the spring which is certainly made from the best steel, but must not be hardened to the most extreme degree because it would otherwise would very easily break Page 374 so they must be neith too strong in operation nor, indeed, too flexible and soft. In the same way the frizzen must be worked from the best well hardened steel and not worked coarsely and clumsily. The readiness of a weapon to fulfill its final purpose is attained through the ease with which the cock strikes the frizzen. In this regard, the gun stocker can contribute very much to the perfection of a firearm in that he can join and position all the pieces in such a form that they have their most suitable relation to each other for their final purpose. From this one easily sees that in no country could there occur natural, or otherwise insurmountable, obstacles which would prevent complete and effective weapons from being manufactured therein. Every country, if it merely applies the necessary attention can make perfect malleable iron and the best steel as I have puroclaimed in the preface and have shown sufficiently in the foregoing articles of this section. The nature of the water is no obstacle to this. The water can have no other influence in the manufacture of a good weapon in so far as that it will be needed for the quenching of the steel and the minute quantity which will be needed for that can easily be made by salts and other ingredients skillfully added to it. Those cities and countries page 375 which are famous for their particularly good weapons also have, not only the natural quality of their water, but also the industry, the attention, and ability of their workers to thank, which is encouraged solely by the attention and insight of the directors of such a factory. However, in order for a country to establish the reputation for making beautiful weapons, then it comes not only from the perfection of the weapons of the army and other good common rifles and guns, but also one must trouble himself to manufacture weapons which have complete perfection and external beauty in them which the skillfullness and the wit of other countries have devised. All that the Spanish shot guns FLINTEN particularly possess, that give the locks of Paris, Sedan, and Mastricht a higher value, that has made the enthusiast so covetous of the rifles of various Italian masters, as well as all other external decorations such as the inlaying of silver on the locks and barrels must be duplicated in each weapons factory and new inventions could be added to this if the directors of such factories have regard and peculiar insight in this matter understanding the experience of the skilled minds among their workers and know to encourage such experienced workers. page 376 What the second class entails, concerns namely the slashing and stabbing weapons, thus the manufacture of the same finds no fewer difficulties, because with those of most varieties, as, for example, the spontoons, broadswords, halberds, and bayonets, come from nothing more than good iron and the usual form of the same that can always be copied by mediocre workers. Then most of these weapons will be made merely from iron and, when it comes to high heat, hardened in a good quench water which is nevertheless unnecessary but once for many. The sabers, broadswords, and swords alone provide that the entire piece, or at least their edge be made of steel. Because it is always of great advantage in such side arms that their cutting edge is made of excellent steel so that, in spite of its great hardness nevertheless it is not so brittle as to break as soon as it is driven with force onto a hard substance. This is especially important for the sabers of the cavalry who must perform their principal actions with the sword, and consequently must have the same necessarily in the most practical soundness. Among all sabers to this time unquestionably, the damaskened ones claim the superiority on account of their extraordinary hardness and durabitlity in which they do not have the disadvantageous brittleness with their great hardness with which one can cut through common iron like brass and never fracture when they meet a hard page 377 hard substance with great force. They are particularly recognizable in that they appear like a flame or like waves of water, and, as it were, they appear to be welded together from two different metals; one white and one black, that have not yet completely alloyed with each other. These flames or different veins of metal are not merely on the upper surfaces of the metal, rather they extend throughout the body of the blade and one can grind as deeply thus showing always the two different veins. When there are workers among us who also create this damaskening artificially by means of lime and acid, then this is nothing more than a miserable fraud so that only the upper surface of the blade gives the a genuine appearence and is not durable after all in that the presumed beautiful damskening is lost entirely in a few years. The chief value of the Damascus blades, namely the uncommeon hardness, yet, with that, the lack of all brittleness is not to be met with in these fraudently created blades and thus many of our workers have counterfeited, thus they could not come upon the mark of those armourers at Damascus and other Turkish cities. The famous chemist of steel has lectured on the supposition of the manufacture of the Damascus blades that is not improbable. page 378 He contends that they are manufactured from half steel and half iron in which one has wound the iron and steel together hot and in various manners welded them together. At least, if one ensnares the iron and steel, thus the differing waves and flames result throughout the whole mass of metal tat completes the finshed appearence the damaskening possesses. This conjecture is quite probable. The mixture of iron with steel makes the abscence of brittleness understandable, which is the greatest advantage of the Damascus blades; thus, similarly it is not improbable that the welded in steel can impart some of its hardnews to the combined iron. If the Damaskening worker has only hard water in which to quench his blades, that is more advantageous than the other types that are familiar to us, thus one also comprehends how the great hardness of these blades can arise. Meanwhile, this is all notheing other than a conjecture. The best theory of this type and manner of these and every operation and preparation has very often only failed, when one has finally learned everything with certainty. In the deed, we know nothing positively about the mode and manner in which the Damascus blades are manufactured. This is not the sole point of our ignorance that we must lament in the manufactures, factories, and commercial establishments of the Orient and from their authentic account, page 379 our knowledge as well as our profit would be increased. Because the praise-worthey Dane, Friedrich, at this time has sent a delegation of learned men to the Orient for the gathering of intelligence, it is very much to be hoped that one would have been commissioned to collect and authentic record on account of the many works and products of the Orient and they are allowed to be instructed to this end by a man who knows what in this is yet wanting in our understanding. I very much doubt that it would fall to us hard or impossible to give our sword blades at least an equal hardness without all brittleness and the Damascus blades have. Only the educated think little about such discoveries and our mechanical workers lack a speculative nature. Apparently often the repeated welding in of the steel would contribute very much more towards the loss of brittleness. This is easily comprehended. The nature of steel consists of the frequently burned substance that is introduced into the steel. This new component will be introduced on all sides and set between the iron parts; must in a natural way detrimentally decrease the adherence of the iron parts and brittleness is produced. Only when the steel has been welded into itself often, then one easily sees, that this must promote the restoration of the formen adherence of the components very greatly. page 380 Herr Lauraeus in the Journal of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science holds that this frequent welding together of the steel is advantageous for still another reason, namely because the steel has veins of different varieties and for that reason, when it is drawn out thinly, it is easily bent and throws fractures. Nevertheless, those that look into this chapter will not be vexed to read his word itself with which this chapter will close. " I take four equal bars of steel and weld them together completely without any iron added, allow them to be drawn out to a thumb's thickness, heating them afterward, grasp them on each end with tongs, and wind them around as much as I can; stretch them out again so that they are as thick as they were before, fold them four times together again, weld them a second time, forge them out, wind them again as the first time, and proceed in such a manner a third time as before and then the work is complete, so that they can be used for various edges and cuts and afterwards be forged has need for various things. The reason of the winding is because the steel has veins of different types of which some stretch out, others pull together, from which follows that the steel retracts together on hardening or extends and consequently becomes bent or throws a bulge, which later is difficult or impossible to straighten and can be brought again into the proportion so the veins are parted by the winding round about the malleable so that they are not easily bent in the hardening or so difficult to straighten and restore."

Harold // 6:38 PM
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