Hal

Wednesday, December 05, 2001:

TRADES AND ARTS



Notes on Translation
Acknowledgements and Introduction


Notes on the Translation It is a great understatement to call the production of a translation of this type a challenging undertaking. It was however immensely rewarding. In deference to the editors of the original German text of Handwerke und Kuenste, the translator feels compelled to point out to the reader that these translations cannot be regarded as infallible. Particularly due to the heavily technical nature of the material and regional dialect of the Berlin area, the German text often required a creative approach in order to bring the sense of the content over into English. Paramount to the translator was the desire to give the English translation, a directness and accessibility that the German text delivered. This accessibility of the German text most often expressed itself in compact yet complex and information laden constructions which, when brought over into English, become cumbersome, tedious, and often entirely inaccessible. Thus, overcoming this unfortunate transformation became a greater challenge than finding the definition of "Winkelweiser" or "Geschlinge." The editor, Otto Ludwig Hartwig, and his predecessor, Peter Nathanael Sprengel, often rendered aid in a not so indirect way.
Their publication was intended for the youths in the Realschul. It was meant to be utilitarian and not just as a matter of course. In the preface to the first volume appearing in 1767, Peter Sprengel wrote at great length about the need to bring education to the youth of Prussia in a form that would be most attractive and expedient; avoiding lengthy, staid lectures and instead bringing the practical education to the student. This goal was so high a priority with Sprengel and Hartwig, that even their most detailed descriptions of trades practice always have at their core the idea that the student must understand the subject matter easily and completely. Therefore, the translator also reaped the benefit of this aspiration and hopes to pass it along, so far as he is able, to the English-speaking reader. Always the emphasis has been put on capturing the meaning of the text and perserving the nuance of the authors as much as possible. Though the text is technical, a high priority has been placed on making it readable. Therefore, precise translation of the text following the exact order of the prepositional phrases, verb tenses, and the like has not been attempted. The content of the text is of paramount importance.

Inevitably, the definitions of certain technical terms have been difficult to establish and the reader is likely to find some of the terms selected questionable. The translator hopes that the overall text has not suffered too deeply from his deficiencies and invites suggestions from the readers regarding changes that might improve the work.

Finally, the translator does encourage those with a knowledge of German to dealve into the original text of this book and others like it. For the historian of technology, there remains a great deal to be uncovered.



Description of an Iron Forge at Neustadt-Eberswalde
Copyright: Harold B. Gill, III; 1990

Volume 5 Section 6

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Description of an Iron Forge at Neustadt-Eberswalde

I. The most common and most inexpensive, but still the most indispensible metal is iron. Undoubtably, the creator has spread the ore of this metal most plentifully in nature because it provides human society with many important benefits. Therefore no metal occupies the hands of more tradesmen than this one and that is why the next two volumes of this book deal chiefly with the iron workers.

As promised, the account of an iron forge at Neustadt- Eberswalde in the Mittelmark shall be the first among the iron working treatises. In brief, one will relate the most necessary information since the texts of von Justi and Schreber provide an extensive account of important German iron forges. The particular forge considered is not positioned near the high furnace in order to fully refine pig iron as are the majority of iron forges,

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but it merely supplies the neighboring copper forge with implements, forges notched bar iron for the Neustadt knife factory, and manufactures a few articles for the gun factory. To a certain extent, one can compare it to the Rhineland refinery of which Doctor Schreber spoke in the first part of the second volume of his "Cameralschriften". The other important works in this neighborhood left only a few hours in which one could take in a view of this forge and this section shall render an account from the observations collected there.

II. Iron and steel are the products of nature that will be worked at an iron forge of this type.

A. The iron has a gray color and a whitish surface on breaking. In hardness, this metal surpasses all the others and in spite of this it is tough when it has superior quality. Both qualities taken together indisputably are the reason that no metal is so elastic as this one. After tin, it has the least specific gravity, since it displaces pure water in the ratio of 8:1. It dissolves easily in aqua fortis (nitric acid) but does not dissolve easily in mercury. With the exception of lead, one can join it to all other metals without difficulty.

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Who is there who doesn't know that the magnet attracts it and that it can be turned into artificial magnets? In all the kingdoms of nature, one finds traces of this metal and therefore there is hardly any land that should not have iron ore, except that these various regions give so little iron that it hardly compensates for the outstanding costs of mining it. One finds it in the mountains and on the surface of the earth as well.

It is difficult to bring it to melting temperature and therefore it serves the artisan to work another quality of this metal which is more advantageous; namely that it easily becomes red hot and can be stretched and shaped under the hammer. Its superior hardness which is reinforced by this action makes it suitable for tools with which one can forge the remaining metals and iron, itself, and with it, one can divide the majority of remaining substances. Because of its elasticity the strongest springs will be made from this and because it becomes tougher through annealing, it can be drawn into wire. Its utility would be greater still if it didn't have two short-comings; namely that it is easily burned to clinker in the fire and that it will be consumed to a brown red rust in water and in air. All of this, the scientist teaches about iron. The remaining observations of the work place one reserves until the next section.

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That it can be made harder by artificial means has already been said and through this arises

B. Steel that thus is nothing more than hardened iron. Until now, the opinion of the scientists has been divided over what occurs during the transformation when iron changes into steel; whether the superfluous sulfur must merely be separated or whether one must bring more combustible pieces into proximity of the iron when it is to be converted into steel. In the first case one would have to remove the sulfur with alkaline salts, in the last situation however horn, bones of animals, coal dust, soot and other things must comprise the many combustibles that are imparted to the iron. Mr. von Justi in his Essays on the Manufactures and Factories Volume II page 362 alleges two means to make steel, the cementation and the smelting. In cementation, a thin rod of iron is placed in a cementation box made of copper or iron and the remaining empty space is filled with a cementation powder of burned and pulverized horn, hooves of animals, old leather, hair, along with coal dust. One must allow the box to lay in the fire from six to eight hours and the heat must be raised gradually. After this, the iron will be forged under the hammer a few times.

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In the majority of steel mills, one prefers to choose the puddling process however. The pig iron will be refined on the refining hearth and, in this operation, is treated in the same manner as in other iron mills except that the hearth consists of coal stumps. This gives a wrought iron that the steel mill calls steel stones and is smelted anew on a forge made of coal stubs. Here, one can likewise put horn and oxen hooves etc. in the fire with benefit. During the smelting lard and tallow will be thrown on the fire, partly so that the steel will not be burned and partly also that the combustion of these things is passed on from the combustion of the coal to the iron. When the whole mass has been set in the fire bit by bit and is melted into a loop, that is, a piece that sticks together, then one brings it under the hammer that is driven by water and it is worked thoroughly. Seldom does the steel receive its quality entirely from the first smelting. As with the cementation, so it is with the smelting; the steel must be cooled in cold water, this brings its fibers closer together and augments its hardness. The mills supply this artificial metal to artisans in cakes or small bars. The English themselves use Steiermark steels for their best cutting instruments and one claims

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superiority for these over all European types of steel in spite of the local ironworkers' assertions to the contrary.

C. As is well known, the iron forge prefers to allow its charcoal to burn slowly out of pine wood.

III. The machines and the manufacture of the work of an iron forge are so inextricably tied to each other that they cannot be easily separated. The mill in which one finds the hammer works lie on the "Fuehne" and the strong undershot water wheels of the hammer axles will also be driven from this small stream. The mill is divided into two workshops.

A. In the smallest workshop stands

a) a smiths forge with a double wooden bellows that are likewise water powered.

b) a small ordinary forge where the iron is heated for tools for the neighboring copper forge and is forged on an ordinary anvil.

c) a skelps hammer. It is among the tilt hammers as is the broad hammer of the coppersmith (Volume 4 p.132) and resembles it completely.

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The large hammer axles move due to six lifting arms and the hammer itself weighs one half hundredweight. With this hammer one forges only skelps or long thin rectangular plates from which the gun mill at Potsdam will manufacture smooth bores and rifles. The skelp's length and breadth will be determined by the size of the different types of guns and the hammersmith uses only the Swedish pattern iron out of which they are forged to guide them in such a manner under the hammer so that the necessary thickness and size result.

d) The rod hammer likewise weighs one half hundredweight. It differs from the former only in that on the face a small narrow piece projects along the entire length of the face of which one can get a good idea from [Figure I r on Plate VI]. One has set up this hammer first because the hereditary tenant of the knife factory at Neustadt Eberswalde, the Splittgerber heir of Berlin, rents this iron forge also in order to let the smiths of this factory forge notched bar iron for knives, shears, and chains. The hammersmith guides only large bars of Swedish or native iron under the hammer until they have the requisite thickness, and the hammer strikes the iron with notches without his assistance as one can easily see from its appearance.

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B. Next to the two spacious workshops stands

a) A refinery with a strong wooden double bellows that the stream powers. Experienced people know that all fineries are small high furnaces and it would be superfluous to describe these further because one can read accounts about this type in a hundred other writings. It is sixteen feet high. For a few years the gun factory at Potsdam has had occasion to use this furnace to recycle the boring tailings that are produced during the boring out of guns. They deliver their tailings according to their weight and drop the price somewhat for the loss and the cost. One smelts the iron shavings in this furnace again into a mass that adheres together or into a loop and therefore the oven stands next to a large forge with which the loop can be brought under the trip hammer at once.

In the second large workshop is

b) a large smiths forge with a double wooden bellows that is similar to the refining hearth of the iron forge by the high furnace. It appeared to be about ten feet long and six feet deep.

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c) The helve of the trip hammer runs parallel to the hammer axle because hammers of this type will not lift behind the lifting arms of the axle shaft rather the long wooden lifting arms grasp the handle just under the iron. [Figure I ab,cd] on Plate VI are both strong wooden beams with their grip in which the sleeves [ef] of the hammer [gh] move. The hammer itself weighs two hundredweight and has a cylindrical face, as does the skelps hammer. [ik] is the strong hammer axle that has four wooden lifting arms [l] with which they lift the shaft of the hammers. [mn] is the length wise rectangular anvil in an iron casing that surrounds a strong anvil block; [mo] is a small wooden gutter that directs running water on to the anvil block so that it does not ignite from the flying cinders, and [pq] the stump guard rod which is connected with the guard board on the gutter with which one can provide slack water in the workshop and at the same time can provide the motive force for the axle as the circumstances allow. (See Volume IV p. 130).

Under these hammers the following pieces are manufactured:

A. One also forges rods out of the loop from the finery. One divides the loop with a strong chisel under the hammer into

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smaller pieces and, from each piece, a rod will be drawn out that the hammersmith must regulate in size and form under the hammer.

B. From the loop, plates for the cuirasses for the arms' factory will be drawn out as well. The hammer forges them into just such a plate that has the required size of the cuirasses but are not yet further formed other than that one has to a certain extent provided the round cut outs for the arms of the cavalryman. It will employ so much iron in the large forge considered, that what begins as one loop, be can forged into four cuirasses. The inserted pieces of iron melt together in the forge into an adhering mass or loop and as soon as the slag falls away like water, one brings the iron under the hammer. Two hammersmiths seek to work the loop out of the forge with levers onto the anvil as well as possible and allow it to become somewhat flat. After this last process, there is nothing left to do other than to guide the loop with strong tongs suitably under the hammer and this applies to all the remaining tasks of this type. The loop will then be cut into four equal pieces with a chisel and each piece is extended by eye into an oblong quadrangle plate under the hammer. If, during these operations, the loop

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becomes bent around on the anvil, then the hammersmith props the handle of the hammer with a strong wooden piece that he cannot grasp with the lever and this also occurs if the hammer is not in use.

C. The large anvils will also be made from a loop that one forges around an iron rod so that it can hang on a crane, a familiar machine, on a chain and it can be brought easily out of the fire, onto the anvil, and back into the fire again. One puts so much iron in the forge as the anvil will weigh and when it is suitably melted together into a loop, then the anvil will be shaped under the trip hammer and after this, it is steeled. In the last situation, the hammersmith forges a plate of steel according to the size of the anvil, heats the anvil along with the steel, lays the plate on the face of the anvil and joins both metals to a certain extent. Then he brings the united masses into the fire once more, gives it welding heat, forges steel and iron together completely under the trip hammer, and shapes it at last entirely as a complete anvil. With almost the same processes, the anvils of the anvil smith will be manufactured who sometimes turn up in cities. They must be put in a forge in the open air because the forges of the blacksmith are not large enough for this work.

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D. The large hammers will be forged like the anvils. The iron out of which the sledge hammers of the blacksmith are to be made, one welds onto an iron rod so that it can be controlled comfortably on the anvil and in the fire. The handle hole will be cut out with a strong chisel.

IV. The hammersmith of this hammer work at first came from the Duchies of Gotha and Eisenach. They have a private factory at the mill that has no association with the blacksmith. At the iron forge described one at present takes on local apprentices, that study approximately four years at the discretion of the managers. A skilled journeyman becomes a foreman, then master.

Harold // 5:05 AM
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TRADES AND ARTS



The Farrier and Armourer
Copyright: Harold B. Gill, III; 1991
P. N. Sprengel's Handwerke und Kuenste

Volume 5 Section 7


The Farrier and Armorer


I. Contents: In daily life, the farrier and armorer is usually called a blacksmith. With him, the ironworker has doubtless found his origin, since he works the iron in the simplest manner, a sure indication of antiquity. The heat of the coal softens the hard metal for him, and most of the time he forges farming tools and the metal work for wagons with just the hammer and anvil. In addition, he manufactures the roughest but most indispensable cutting implements by joining iron and steel. Consequently, in the most extreme situation, a village can be deprived of every other artisan except the blacksmith.

II. Aside from smiths' coal, the blacksmith uses no materials other than iron and steel.

A. In the Prussian provinces, only two types of iron are worked, the Swedish and the native. In the past, the local ironworkers also employed the iron which is produced in the Harz mountains. The native iron is brittle and will therefore only be employed for small articles for which no great durability is required. For example, it can be used for the bolt in the flat iron and the gratings in front of the tuyeres. Time and experience will teach whether the inner contents of the iron are defective or whether our neighbors simply better understand the art of refining iron in the mills and working it under the hammer. The iron from the Harz mountains falls between the former and the Swedish iron in quality. Bars of this type are found occasionally that fully measure up to the Swedish type. Unquestionably, in quality and superior forging characteristics, the Swedish iron surpasses not only the foregoing types, but perhaps the iron of all other lands. It is therefore worth the effort to stay with this subject a while and to cite the most important facts about the workshop.

As is well known, the iron refinery of the blast furnace delivers the iron to the workshop in long bars of various thicknesses. Of these, the smith calls all large iron whose breadth exceeds its thickness, pattern iron. The longest bars are normally three or four inches thick and are called plain pattern

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iron. From these bars the most massive pieces will be forged. In Berlin, it is very seldom worked however since smaller bars must often be cut into narrow rods before one can use them. Much more frequently the local smiths use the following types: 1) The iron that is marked with SF is two inches broad and 3/4 inch thick. One frequently works these into large pieces. An example is the metalwork of the wheels with a tire. 2) The second type has a rose for a mark and the iron derives its name from this. It is just as broad but not quite as thick as the former. The smith uses it for the common iron bands on wheels and praises its superior quality in spite of its being too hard for locks. In contrast, The locksmith prefers to purchase 3) The bars marked HH and, even more so, those marked HS because the iron is at the same time soft and durable. Its breadth amounts to 1 1/2 inches and its width 1/4 inch. One must mention in general, that the locksmith is compelled to see that he purchase only soft iron because he frequently must finish his pieces cold. Certainly it cannot be a lie, that hard iron takes on a better polish on filing, only it is correctly maintained that the durability and saving of time with soft iron compensates amply for its faults. Besides the pattern iron, the iron worker merely uses the ordinary iron and the notched bar iron for

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small articles. The former is about 1 inch thick diagonally and its breadth and thickness are equal. Notched bar iron, the iron forge has drawn out very thin so that it is only 1/2 inch thick. Its edges are indented here and there and from this it has received its name. Because it is already refined more thoroughly than the former bars, thus the cost of one hundredweight of this iron is 1 Reich Thaler more.

In spite of the superiority that the Swedish iron has over the other types, it is not generally of the same quality throughout. Indeed, often one finds in one bar good and bad iron and the locksmith in this case is compelled to see that, if a soft iron is a necessity for a job, the bars with hard places are set aside and saved for work that will not be done cold. Therefore the locksmith has reason to test the iron precisely. The blacksmith certainly prefers to work soft iron as well because it can best be forged and does not fracture so easily. Those things are excluded that bear great friction. For example, plough shares and boxes for the axles of wagons, as one can easily see, require hard iron. Because he can use both hard and soft iron and buys many bars at once, he thus employs no precise test in purchasing but rather he selects

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the iron merely from their outward appearances. If the iron has streaks or small cracks along its length or a so called high edge, it is good for welding and working. If the streaks follow the breadth thus the iron is "red breaking", that is, it does not hold the heat and is not easily forged. It appears as if this last iron is not completely refined at the iron forge. It is improved somewhat through the welding of the smith but only very little. As has already been mentioned, the locksmith must scrutinize the iron that he is buying much more carefully. Therefore he makes a notch on the bar with his chisel, and strikes down the grade with a hammer. If the grade does not break during this test then the iron is malleable and can be worked well cold. In contrast, if it breaks, then the iron is hard and unsuitable for the locksmith's work. Besides this, the quality of iron can also be learned from part of the break. If the break has a white color, that is not too brilliant, that generally is consistent and has large serrations, then the iron is malleable and good. White flecks and small serrations on the break are signs of a steel hard iron. From the brown break one recognizes a leafy iron that takes on no polish from the file. The iron that is not fully worked at the iron forge has black flecks in the fracture. The break of the hardest iron resembles the gray

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fracture of steel and if the break is reddish then the iron certainly can be worked well cold but on heating it is brittle and easily broken. On the best iron little slag sets up in the fire which the smith call tinder when it is still on the heated iron, though cooled, they call it scale. This by-product consists of many iron particles. Therefore the blacksmith stops now and then to collect the scale and supplies the iron mill with a bushel for 12 Groschen, because they can make it into good iron again. One also mixes this slag with lime because the lime makes the mixture bind better and makes it harder. In this case, the smith sells 1 bushel for 13 to 16 Groschen. Besides this, one sometimes sees large pieces of slag lying in front of the forge of the blacksmith. This collects under the fire of the forge from impurities of the iron and from the coal. They contain but few iron particles and therefore no attention will be paid to it. The loss of iron in heating and forging the iron is 15 pounds per hundredweight.

The blacksmith works the old iron again, but only that which results from his work, it is then that old iron will be brought to the forge for smithing. The by-products

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are collected in small pieces into an old horseshoe that is bent a little. The smith calls one such collection of small pieces with the horseshoe a "stuffed pigeon", and heaps on the small pieces until he can forge two horse shoes from them. One holds all these pieces together with tongs, gives them welding heat in the forge and welds them together. Among the tools, one will notice a special tongs with which larger pieces can be held together during the heating. The locksmith only takes the trouble in idle hours to weld together old iron because the loss of coal and time usually outweighs the benefit. Besides, with heavily rusted old iron, there is great loss.

A hundredweight of Swedish iron costs 7 Reich Thalers, native iron though costs only 4 R Thalers 20 Groschen.

B) Most iron workers of this region praise the steel of Cologne as the best and attribute a defective hardness to English steel and steel of Steuermark and pit steel suitable for cutting instruments. Perhaps the price has a noticeable influence on their judgement since 1 pound of steel from Cologne costs 4 Groschen 6 Pfennig but English steel costs 8 Groschen. It is known that the English know how to give their steel a superior spring temper and this occurs without any detrimental hardness.

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On the other hand, skilled ironworkers have assured the author with good foundation that one gives preference in the local area to the steel of Cologne only for the reason that has already been remarked upon since it may be forged and hardened with profit. The quality of the steel cannot be easily discovered cold. It commonly has a similar gray color to its fracture, the serrations are not fine and a piece can easily be struck off so these are signs of its quality for the iron worker. It is far better to examine it by forging. The poor steel will be brittle under the hammer to such a degree that it often explodes apart in tiny pieces and it throws off tiny sparks. These last traits should be a sign according to the remarks of a few smiths that he should add pieces of copper to it.

C) The iron worker heats the iron with charcoal and also with coal. In the small villages and in the flat country, the blacksmiths are in the habit of carbonizing their own charcoal. The charcoal from pine and especially from beech wood give the most continuous and liveliest heat chiefly if they are burned from boughs and are fairly hard and crisp. During the carbonizing of the charcoal, one leans the pieces of wood in a circle around a vertical stake and makes a charge or wood rick out of a few such circles. On this wood rick, fully two or three charges of just this type will be set and the

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whole covered with fat earth or with sod so that the burning wood changes to hard charcoal only gradually. In the covering there will be air vents here and there and in this manner the wood can be changed to charcoal so that most of the combustible parts remain. One such covered and burned wood rick is called a charcoal kiln. In one of the following sections this work will be extensively described. The local smiths buy a ton of charcoal for 6 Groschen.

Coal gives a quite stronger and quicker heat and saves the iron worker time and effort. It is natural then that, with the known traits of the metal, this coal heats more quickly than charcoal. The artisan maintains that a ton of coal works just as well as three or four tons of charcoal of the same size. This is only true for English coal, since one maintains that the coal of Magdeburg is worse. If the ironworker does not understand the art of heating the iron with this coal, then he is exposed to the danger of burning his metal. The iron is not allowed to lie in the burning coal at welding heat so long that upon being taken out stars or sparks jump off as with the charcoal and it is taken out of the coal more often in order to observe the heat. A mixture of charcoal and coal will not please some iron workers because they cannot normally predict the necessary heat of the iron, meanwhile others assert that this is of value only for small pieces of iron, but with large pieces one can lay charcoal underneath and coal above to advantage. The latter holds the heat of the former together better. One ton of English coal costs two R. Thaler.

Note: The coal is composed of a hard earth that is mixed with combustible parts. Therefore, upon burning, they also emit a sulphurous smoke, much of which is disagreeable and dangerous in the room. The smiths assert that as little of the soft coal is the best for their work, in spite of this being contrary to the observations of the scientist.

III. The work of the farrier and armorer is so simple that only a moderate number of tools will be required to overcome the hardness of iron and shape the metal with profit in all instances. The blacksmith has many of these tools in common with the following iron workers and because of their greatnumber, it is all the more important to describe them carefully.

A. The forge of all metal workers who draw the heated metal with the hammer are the same in the essential parts

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with the exception that the forge [Plate VI, Fig II] of the blacksmith is the largest. Therefore it will be superfluous to analyze them in this section since this has already occurred in (Volume IV, page 154). In the meantime the following deviations merit mention: 1) In the large cities, the blacksmiths who have a great deal of work give their forge a double fire box [a, b] and therefore each has a separate bellows [cd, ef]. A separate smiths' anvil stands in front of each fire in the forge. 2) Between both fire boxes lies a hollowed out beam [gh] which one calls the quenching trough. This vessel must be filled with water constantly so that the coals can be moistened with the coal wisp, [Figure IV] a round stick onto which straw is tied at front. In addition to this, there are other small tools belonging to the forge. The smith arranges the coals in the forge with the coal slice, [Figure III]. For this purpose, this instrument has a hook at one end and below this, it has a blade with which the large coals will be broken up. The poker [Figure V] breaks the coal up so that it is looser when one wants to build up the fire. The sand ladle's name [Figure VI] already tells its form and use.

B. The large smiths' anvil [Figure VIII] with a strong steeled face commonly weighs 10 to 11 hundredweight. It is set into a
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large anvil stump just a few inches and its own weight makes it immovable. The anvil stump is bound however with an iron ring so that it doesn't split. On one of the narrow sides there is a square hole [u] on the face into which one fixes the tang of a small chisel on which the iron will be cut and other small pieces also will be used in this hole. The hot chisel [b] also stands completely on the anvil stump.

C. The hammer is the most important tool of the blacksmiths and therefore it is no wonder that one sees variations of this tool in great numbers in his work shop.

A few hammers are round or somewhat rounded on their faces in order to draw out the iron. Among these are particularly: 1) the sledge hammers. They are the heaviest hammers of the blacksmith, since the largest weigh between 30 and 40 pounds. Using these, one draws out the largest bars and gives them the form required. On the face stands a peen which on some runs parallel to the handle; but on others, is set at a right angle. The first, one calls a straight peen sledge hammer [Figure IX]. The other is called a cross peen sledge hammer. With both peens together the smith draws out a bar following its length and breadth. The
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journeyman guides the sledgehammer and the foreman uses a much smaller hammer of this same type that one calls 2) the forging hammer [Figure XI]. Still smaller hammers are called 3) the peen hammer and will be used on all occasions. 4) The peg hammer has a rounded face on both sides and one side is just a bit shorter than the other. One forges nails with it, and therefore it belongs to the forge of the nailsmiths. 5) If the face of this hammer is smooth they are used for polishing and the blacksmith calls them smooth hammers. One moistens them with water and polishes the decorative finials on large bars of the coach with them, for instance. 6) Other hammers with a double polished face, the smith calls set hammers because with these he makes an indentation or depression in the iron. He sets the face of the hammer on the spot that he wants to depress and strikes on the opposite face with the sledgehammer. The edges of the face of some are rectangular and on others are round. In the discussion of the locksmiths, one will become more closely acquainted with these.
The second type of hammer has a sharpened broad peen, that runs parallel to the handle and on the other side has a head. In general, they are called chisel hammers because large bars are cut and chopped into smaller rods with them. [Figure XIII]. One can also rank among these the fullers
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that merely have a duller edge than the chisel. With this, the blacksmith gives a horseshoe slots on its underside into which the holes for the nails will be struck. In the blacksmiths' shop, one finds hammers with which one punches holes in the heated iron in larger numbers and with more variations. They must have a point on one side and have a head on the other side. 1) With the horse shoe stamp [Figure XV], the worker first strikes or stamps the holes that he will strike into the horseshoe and with 2) the pointed hammer [Figure XIV], he punches the holes completely. Therefore, the point of the first is dull. For the holes in tires on the wheels, the smith also has two larger pointed hammers of this type. The former, used to stamp the holes, he calls 3) the tire stamp [Figure XVI a]; the latter though, that punches the hole completely [Figure XVII] is called the tire punch. The former is dull pointed as well. The latter is fully pointed. In the last case, the band will be laid on the hole ring [Figure XVI b], a thick iron ring. The purpose of the smith punching holes of the horseshoe and tire with two types of punches is that the first hole on the side where the nail will be driven in will be larger. The heads of the
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nails sink most of the way into this hole and therefore when the projecting part grinds off it is all the more secure.
Finally there are hammers, that are only used in a few isolated instances. 1) The swage hammer is useful to the iron worker only when he wants to shape the iron in a particular way. With the swage hammer, the blacksmith normally will only decorate the heads of a rod on the coaches with moldings. There are two parts of such a swage, the hammer itself and its bottom swage. Half of the knob is imprinted in the steel face of the hammer [Figure XXIV], the other half is imprinted into the bottom swage [Figure XXV] that has the same size as the face of the hammer. Moreover, there are still two arms beneath this last part in order to slide it onto the anvil and thereby hold it fast. The use of this tool will become clear in the following text. Among the swage hammers are also a type of 2) planishing hammer [Figure XII a] with its bottom swage [b]. One finishes the round and hexagonal rods with this. 3) Likewise, one can rank the sphere or cotter hammer [Figure XXIII b] with these.
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One drives out the pin of the cog wheels because the cone lies in the bottom swage and is driven into the indentation of the foundation with the peen of the hammer. 4) The channel hammer has a broad strong peen [Figure XXIII a]. The blacksmith gives the hatchet a groove between the haft hole and the bit with this. 5) The tack and cross hammers [Figure XVIII] and [Figure XIX] are pointed hammers with a shortened point on which a half sphere stands on the former; and, on the latter; a cross. The smith simply makes decorations on the iron with these, and also with the 6) S hammer [Figure XX] on this hammer stands a Latin S and it will strike sinuous lines by setting one S next to another. On the flat peen, instead of an S, there are two parallel lines, in order that parallel lines may be added to the decoration on the iron. 7) On the marking hammer [Figure XXII] stands the name of the master and 8) the rapping hammer [Figure XXI] with two peens serves merely to tap the edge of the scythe and lining knife thinner.

D. The tongs are nearly as numerous as the hammers. 1) the fire or work tongs [Figure XXVII] hold the iron when one heats it up or forges it on the anvil. On some, the jaws are broad at the front, with others pointed or even completely bent.
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These last, one calls a stork bill [Figure XXVIII]. In order that the tongs and the iron remain joined during the work, the smith holds the grip together with a small clamp, the spanner [a]. 2) The smallest type of tongs, are called stump tongs because they always lie on the anvil stump so that they are always conveniently at hand in all trifling situations. 3) With the wheel tongs [Figure XXIX], the foreman holds and adjusts the tire on the wheel during forging. The catch [a] on the tip of one jaw and the peg [b] on the middle of the other are required for directing the tire properly on the wheel. The foreman grips the tire in the middle with the wheel tongs and two journeymen bend it around on both ends with the wheel hooks [Figure XXX]. If the smith fits the wheel with the hoop instead of a tire then he draws it onto the wheel with a hoop hook [Figure XXXI]. The wooden rod [ab] will set against the rim and the iron hook [c] grips the iron hoop. The hook is fastened to the rod with a link. 4) The ear or drawing tongs [Figure XXXII] have two catches next to each other on the tip of their jaws. With these, one grips the holes of the bands, that are laid around the strong wheels for durability, and bends them around the wood. 5) With the sheet tongs [Figure XXXIII], one grips the so called box when it is fastened into the wheel.
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Therefore they have a catch on each end. 6) The mouth tongs [Figure XXXIV] have two rectangular sheets instead of jaws. The lower is somewhat bent around on both sides and the other jaw, which is completely smooth, fits into this groove. With this, the old iron is held together when one wants to heat it up in order to weld it together. 7) The hammer tongs are merely intended to hold the hammer fast when one wants to heat the peen and sharpen it. Therefore their jaws are bent.

E. The blacksmith gives heads to small nails in a header. It is a strong rectangular iron in which there are holes of different sizes [Figure XXXV a]. On each side is a small round raised area onto which the head will be beaten round. The holes of the horse shoe nail header [Figure XXXV b] are opened on the side. One forms the head on the horse shoe nail with this. The smiths have a special header for each kind of small nail, for example tack and caulking header, but these belong to the section about the nailsmith.

F. The mandrel [Figure XXXVI] is the name for the iron workers of a round or square peg with which they strike holes in the metal cold. Therefore they must have large and small mandrels in suitable number. The
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iron in which one wants to punch holes will be laid on the hole of a hole disk [Figure XXXVIII] into which the mandrel fits. It gives a very sharp raking angle if the hole is too large. Therefore there are holes of different sizes and forms in the iron plate that one calls the hole disk and through this foundation one avoids the raking angle. With the horseshoe mandrel [Figure XXXVII] the holes of the horseshoes will be opened again when it is fitted.

G. Tthe smith places large nails in the hole of the large nail header [Figure XXXIX] when he wants to forge the head. It is a stout rectangular iron on a block [a]. Above is a hole [b] which extends to the slot [cd]. The purpose of this is to allow the the nail to be pushed on its point out of the large header again. The large nail headers are about two and a half feet high and the small ones are about a foot high.

H. The wheel auger [Figure XL] is a flat rectangular tip on an iron handle. One bores holes with this in the rim of the wheel for the nails. In other instances of this nature one prefers a point drill, that is different from the former only insofar as it has no flat point but instead all four sides are the same length.

J. The form of the beak iron [Figure XLVI] is already known. It is just of value here
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to note what has been mentioned in the foregoing text already; the beak iron of the blacksmith is particularly large. It stands, as the anvil does, on a stump and has a round and a rectangular horn.

K. The box chisel [Figure XLI] is partly flat like an ordinary broad wood chisel [a], and in part it resembles a half cylinder [b]. With both, the smith chisels out as much of the hole of the wheel as the thickness of the box amounts to, and cuts the wood completely smooth with the box reamer [Figure XLII]. This last tool is a bent blade on a handle.

L. In the round slot of the bending jig [Figure VII] the sheet on the axle of the wagon will be beaten round. It has a tang underneath with which it can be positioned during use in the hole of the smith's anvil [Figure VIII a].

M. The vice [Figure XLIII] unquestionably is indispensable to no artisan more than to the iron worker because he must hold the iron with it in all situations; when it is cold and also when he wants to work it hot. Therefore the description of this most commonplace of instruments has been spared until now. Its major parts are the two strong iron halves [ab, ac] that are bent and are broad at [a].
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On the largest vices, their thickness extends to two inches; their breadth, to half a foot and their length, from one to two feet. Both are held together by a rivet in two large iron pieces of metal [bd] that one calls wedges. And similarly these wedges give the movable halves [ab] a symmetrical arrangement. In the German vice, the movable halves [ab] have, a strong spindle at [e] fastened on with screw threads [ef] that merely pass through the other half [ac]. On its tip, a hexagonal casing [f] or a nut is placed that one turns with a key [fg] and through which both jaws press onto each other or are separated from one another. The key has a hexagonal ring at [f], that fits onto the nut. Alternately, on other vices a movable round rod, to which one gives a large knob on both ends, is placed into a hole on the tip of the housing, in order to reduce the force of the swing. Following the rules, mechanics would make the vice as strong as the screw is tight and the key is long. In spite of this the ironworkers tend to make the key only half as long as half of the vice because with the longer key beginners, or probably even the master himself, in haste can easily crush the iron that he is clamping. The French vice has all the parts mentioned but the screw is opened differently. In the case of the German vice,
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the key [fg] lies on the work table on which the vice is fastened. On the other hand, with the French vice, the key is opened with greater advantage at the head. Therefore the spindle [ef] is fastened onto the half [ac] and passes through the movable arm [ab]. The eye will also easily recognize that the vice illustrated is a German one. In order that the vice opens all the better, between both halves a strong spring [id] is inserted. The vice stands on a post [ch] on a wooden stump next to the work bench and is fastened onto the work bench with an iron bench iron at [d].

N. Files and rasps are familiar enough.

O. Of the screw plates [Figure XLVI], there is nothing further to mention except that which one has already said often about these tools, other than that a handle is stuck into the head of the tap [a] with which the nut will be bored that the metal worker calls a turning iron [Figure XLV]. With the blacksmith, this is particularly important because he manufactures very strong screws out of hard iron.

P. In the meantime, the blacksmith also cuts up iron with a chisel [Figure XLVII] and he makes S lines with half round chisels on his metal cold.

Q. The haft mandrel [Figure XLVIII] has the form of an eye of an ax or a cleaver,
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and this hole will also be formed on this iron thus like a ring on the handle of a spade on the round peg.

R. The whet stone is familiar enough.

S. The sheet shears [Figure XLIV] of the smith deviate from the shears often described only in that during use they are fastened on a tang into the hole on the smiths' anvil.

T. Finally, the so called shoeing tools for shoeing horses should be named. One finds them lying together on a small table in the workshop, so that they can easily be carried to the street during the shoeing of a horse. On the table are the following pieces; 1) The cutting blade [Figure L], a piece of an old saber takes off the old iron and the nails on the worn out hoof. If the horse's hoof needs trimming, then one trims it with the 2) work knife [Figure LII], and attends to the iron as necessary. The knife is made entirely of iron and the forward broad edge, which on both sides is somewhat bent trims the hoof. 3) The rasps [Figure LIV] smooth the hoof completely. In the fitting the shoe itself, the smith makes use of the hoof tongs, the hoof hammer and the riveting iron. 4) With the hoof hammer, [Figure LIII], a small hand hammer, the nails will be driven into the hoof.
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The smith rivets the nails around with the 5) rivetting iron [Figure LV] that is solid and about 1/2 inch thick and 2 1/2 inches long and he knocks the excess off with the edges. 6) The hoof tongs [Figure LVI] are used only when the nails bend around, to pull them out again or also to take out the old nails. Wild horses one binds with the 7) mouth muzzle [Figure LVIII] with which one lays the frame (a) over the nose, the bar (b) in the mouth and the bar (c) under the mouth. 8) With the nose brush [Figure LI] the nose of the horse will be cleaned and with the slate iron [Figure LVII] the smith cuts off the tips of the incisor teeth. In the meantime, the smith is also a skilled horse doctor and therefore must possess a few instruments for this that will however find an inconvenient place for discussion here.

Harold // 5:04 AM
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IV. The iron workers have various methods of working iron in common and it would be cumbersome to repeat these items with the descriptions of each iron working artisan. For the sake of brevity therefore the universal foundations of the iron workers will be premised in this section and one will refer to these more often in the text hereafter.

A. As is commonly known, all iron workers heat the iron in a coal fire and,
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by this means, soften it so that it can be drawn under the hammer. The heating or, as the smith says, the warming of the iron is always the first operation in the working of the metal. The iron will be held in the smith's tongs [Figure XXVII] during heating to position it in the fire comfortably, to carry it to the smith's anvil [Figure VIII] and adjust it on this tool. Should it be necessary to heat it in the fire, then the iron must lie a bit below the opening of the tuyere of the bellows at a little distance. Failing this, the wind of the bellows cools off the iron continuously and it doesn't take the necessary heat. This is also the reason that the tuyere lies somewhat inclined. During the heating, the ironworker brings the coal together over the iron with the hook of the coal slice [Figure III] fairly often and cuts the large pieces of coal apart with the edge of this tool. Meanwhile, he thrusts into the fire and under the iron with the poker [Figure V]. The coals will thereby lie more loosely and the fire will be increased. Finally the coals must also be moistened with water with the coal wisp [Figure IV] during this process. This has manifold uses. By this means, one prevents the coal from being burned by the fire all at once and, at the same time, the heat is collected in the middle of the coals under the iron. Above all, the iron worker has noticed that the holes occur in the iron when the coal has not been made wet.
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They call these holes "Swabians". Following the nature of these conditions, the smith can give the iron three types of heat. The highest heat one calls the welding or flowing heat. Normally the iron worker is referring to this heat when he says that he gives the iron "heat". At this temperature, the slag on the iron that the smith calls scale is already fluid and drops from the iron. This fluid scale is the reason that the iron throws off bright sparks, when the iron is taken out of the forge and that is the sign that the metal already has attained welding heat. The iron worker must give his metal this heat with great care however, if it is to be thoroughly heated and but not burned. From the arrangement of the forge and the positioning of the iron in the blast, one will easily comprehend that the lower side of the metal will be heated most. Nevertheless, it is necessary that it receive the same degree of heat throughout, if it is required that the hammer work it through, and therefore one must rotate it in the fire. If only the underside is already heated somewhat, then one turns it over in the fire and sprinkles it with sand from the sand trowel [Figure VI] at the same time. The heated side would burn during the time that the other side is heated if one did not cool it off with this material. In a few regions,
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one uses loam or earth instead of sand, but experience shows that the sand does better service. The steel will be heated up to welding heat with still greater care if it is not to fall apart under the hammer. The more brittle or, according to the language of the workshop, the "fresher" it is, the more caution the smith must use in handling it. If its brittleness is not to be detrimental, then it must be placed into the sand mixed with some salt not once but several times during the heating. This first happens if it begins to become white hot and one then rotates it in the fire the same. It will be repeated two more times during the heating and also if it is to be be dressed on the anvil. One does not allow it to lie in the fire as long as the iron and this also applies to the steel hard iron. A few smiths maintain it to be advantageous to moisten the coals with muddy water during the heating of steel. The iron is allowed to receive welding heat only if it is to be worked through with the large sledge hammers and, in the remaining cases, a milder degree of heat is sufficient. If it cools during the shaping, then one again brings it to white heat and, if the smith wants to retouch a piece here and there, then he brings it to red heat. These two heats have received their name from the color of the iron and this is also the
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sign that the iron has the requisite degree of heat. In this it is not important, however, to turn the iron or strew sand upon it. In cutting, the iron lies a half of a quarter hour in the glowing coals until it is red hot and for each higher degree of heat, two minutes longer. One says this though with qualification, because in cutting smaller pieces of iron the smith can naturally heat in less time than he can with large ones. In very good coal, especially in hard coal, the time will likewise be reduced. This also applies to the mass of coal that surrounds the iron. Therefore, as is easily seen, one does not place as much coal on smaller pieces as on large ones. If a smith does not wish to bring a completely heated iron under the hammer again, then he sticks it into the sand in the meantime and cools it off by this means so that it doesn't burn.

B. The purpose of heating the iron is to weld it and forge it and this is indisputably one of the most important parts of ironworking. For the sake of clarity, the descriptions of this common work of the iron worker should be premised with a few observations. First to be noted is that for iron, the smith gives the fire a severe degree of heat that they call welding heat, so that they can bring the parts of the iron together more densely with their large sledge hammers
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and, through this, increase the density of the iron. During this operation, they must still continually aim at establishing the form of the work that they want to forge from the iron and accordingly they shape the metal at the same time. If the main objective has been reached, then one should only bring the iron to white or red heat. Those ironworkers that want to work the iron cold after the smithing must make it particularly compact during the welding because otherwise the iron becomes flaky and gets chipped which is detrimental, particularly for filing. Secondly, the iron workers have agreed among themselves on silent signals, through which they communicate during the forging. And this is about as important as anything else because the striking of large hammers would make words unintelligible. The signals will be given by the one that holds and adjusts the iron with tongs on the anvil. The farrier and armorer or blacksmith calls the worker the foreman, though he may be the master himself or a journeyman. For most work, the foreman can hold the tongs with his left hand and with the right guide the forging hammer [Figure XI] with which he gives most signals. The signals themselves are taken from the nature of things, it would be superfluous to name them all. For example, the foreman strikes normally with the forging hammer on the iron, or in the middle of the anvil
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and if he strikes hard, then this is the signal that the journeyman should likewise heave his sledgehammer [Figure IX, X] heavily. If they should direct their sledgehammers to another part of the iron, then the foreman strikes first on this place with the forging hammer and should they cease forging, then he lets his hammer fall a few times on the edge of the anvil. If he turns the hammer around and strikes with the peen, then the journeyman must do just the same. In just this manner, the journeyman knows already that they should draw up a part of an iron rod, if the foreman lays it on the anvil in such a manner that an end projects. In brief, the foreman must designate all blows and the journeyman must continually follow his example. Therefore one easily sees, that the foreman must have a good eye and much experience which is not required in the journeyman to such a degree. With large pieces, that the foreman must hold with both hands, he cannot direct all the operations without words however.
This postulated, the general situations of forging will become comprehensible. 1.) Most rods of iron must be cut up into smaller bars with the hot chisel [Figure XIII] before one forges an object out of them. Too much time would be lost in drawing a large bar out.
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The iron worker allows the iron to be heated merely red hot, lays it on the smiths' anvil [Figure VIII] and a worker sets the chisel on the metal, and moves it continually along the length of the bar as the remaining workers strike the head of the chisel with the large sledge hammers. 2.) Meanwhile it is important to stretch the bar along its length or along its breadth and this is done with the cross- [Figure X] and straight- [Figure IX] peen sledge hammers. Should the bars be hammered thinner along their length and stretched at the same time, then the peens of the hammers fall onto the iron parallel to the breadth of the bar and the peen of the forging hammer first, then the peen of the cross peen hammer following every blow. From this, it is revealed that both workers must take such a position that the handles of their hammers make a right angle. If the bar is to be transformed into a strong sheet along its breadth however, then the situation is reversed. Both peens of the sledge hammer now strike parallel to the long side of the bar and the forging hammer again strikes first on the spot, after this, however, the cross peen hammer strikes. Also, from this work both hammers have received their names. Out of the bar that has been stretched in this way, either along its breadth or its length, results a thick sheet of metal that is necessary in many of the iron workers' situations. The smiths say that they forge it narrow
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if they draw out a piece of iron with the peen of the hammer. 3) Of the forging of square bars there is nothing more to say other than that the foreman adjusts them during the forging very well by eye. 4) The foreman moves round bars in a circle continuously and lets them be formed in the rough by the sledgehammer. He must finish the finest work after this with a forging hammer that first beats down any uneven places and the rods must be completely rounded. They will never be made completely round under the hammer though, and therefore those bars that are to be particularly fine will be evened with the planishing hammer [Figure XII]. This only applies to hexagonal bars. The smith fastens the foundation of the swage [Figure XII b] on the anvil by means of its tang, lays the bar in its round opening, sets the top swage hammer [a] on the bar as well and lets the large sledge hammer strike on to the swage hammer. In this manner one place on the bar after another will become completely smooth. The iron must be at white heat for this and if the bar is to be correctly smoothed, then one covers the indentations of both halves of the swage with water. With these same processes, the hexagonal bars will also be evened in a hexagonal depression of both halves of a swage. 5) The welding of iron is to be particularly noted,
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which is characterized mainly by the raising of the heat to welding heat. Raising the heat to welding heat means only that the iron is forged more densely, welding however unites two separate pieces. For example, the iron out of which a plough share is composed. The spots on both pieces which one wants to fuse together will first be heated and forged thinner or scarfed. An edge results from this at the front that can burn off at the welding heat, however, if it were not knocked off. The smith strikes with the hammer against the edges so that they become a bit thicker. Then he gives the scarfed places that he wants to weld together a welding heat and strikes away the scale as best he can before the irons are laid on each other because this scale will prevent the uniting of the metal. The scarfed places will be positioned together on the anvil and first the iron will be only struck quite lightly so that the pieces don't get driven away from each other, but gradually the blows will be strengthened. This unites the two pieces of iron very well, but one can always notice the joint. If it happens that the pieces do not want to fuse then the smith must first sprinkle sand and a little salt and, if need be, a little ash onto the iron. The notching of the scarfed edges helps but little in this, because the notches will burn up at the welding heat. If one wants to join two or more pieces of iron very precisely,
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then one can also drive rivets completely through the pieces that one wishes to unite before the iron is brought to welding heat. This occurs only rarely though. 6) In addition, the steel will be welded and forged just as the iron except that one must first very slowly strike upon it with the sledge hammers with blows of gradually incresing strength. It breaks apart under the hammer, just like the very hard iron, when the sledge hammer falls on the brittle metal with all its force. The remaining points that pertain to forging are best left to be illustrated by examples.

C. The tools, springs, and cutting instruments receive a superior hardness and therefore all iron workers must understand the art of hardening the iron as well as the steel. 1) Among the different materials, hardening the iron is the simplest; namely, one brings it to red heat and quenches it in the water. Instead of the latter, the iron worker forges it also entirely on the anvil cold with a wet hammer. It receives a steel hardness, if one brings it to red heat and quenches it in salt, shavings from horn and herring oil. After this it will be made red hot again and put into the water. The iron can receive a better hardness still, according to the declarations of the iron workers, if one sprinkles it with burned and pulverized hooves,
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lays it in a clean container or sheet metal box, moistens it with urine, and places it in the fire until one believes it is red hot. Then it will be cooled in the water as well. The iron workers say that they temper the iron when they harden the iron by both these means. The editor merely tells the processes of the iron workers without determining whether one could change iron into steel by increasing these methods. 2) With cutting instruments, one gives the steel a better hardness in salt usually which the iron worker also calls tempering. The steeled instruments will be completely immersed in the salt and it must lie in it until it turns blue. Then it will be heated again and quenched in the water. Very seldom do the iron workers harden the cutting implements in tallow, because it is expensive and a special trough is needed for this, which only a very few smiths have. The steeled instruments also will be made red hot, and put into tallow which one keeps in a trough. A few also put the cutting instruments into old leather and in this it also receives a good hardness. 3) The steel springs must be particularly well hardened, because this strengthens their elasticity. Normally, the spring will be brought to red heat, cooled in water smeared with tallow and held in the fire until the tallow is melted. The spring should receive a superior
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hardness however, when one cools it at red heat in the water, smears it with tallow, and lays it in the coal until the steel blues; that is until the tallow is completely absorbed. The iron worker strikes down on the spring with an iron hammer, and holds it to be fully hardened, if in doing this small sparks spring off. Finally, it will be cooled in the sand. A few iron workers use wax instead of tallow.

D. Finally, we see that for all iron workers it is necessary to make the iron and steel malleable again through the annealing, when it becomes brittle under the hammer. This occurs in all the work that is bent cold or that needs to be worked with the file or chisel. 1) The easiest method is for one to throw it in the glowing coals and leave it lying there a few hours without the bellows being applied. This occurs when the piece has lost its malleability. 2) The iron becomes even more malleable if one sticks them into loam or, even better, into the excrement of humans, that any iron worker can easily find in the privy, and allows it to lie in the fire all night, so that it cools in it. Experience teaches that, since the aforesaid applies to either metal, the steel as well as the iron will be most annealed when the fire in which it lies is burned from a mixture of coal and wood. The remaining occupations of the iron workers are partly not common
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to all and partly can only be explained by examples.

V. The processes of the blacksmith will be given a closer look in this section and, in the following sections, the remaining iron working trades will gradually be explained. The farrier and armorer manufacture their works either from iron only or they join iron and steel for cutting implements. Both will best be illustrated by examples.

A. From iron, he forges anchors and cramps for buildings and metalwork for agricultural implements and wagons.

a) There are anchors of different types but they normally consist of two parts the ear and the bolt (wedge). The ear is an iron rod, that has on one or both ends a ring through which the bolt, a stout nail, is driven. When the iron for the ear is at an appropriate welding heat, then one forges the place where the ring should be a little thinner, bends the piece of iron on both sides of the thin forged area together free hand with a hammer. Through this, it forms the ring itself. The nail is forged as round as possible with the hammer because,
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with the anchors, one does not require decoration so much as durability. It receives the head in the large header [Figure XXXIX]. With this and the remaining examples, one presumes that forging and welding are already understood by the reader. For the cramps, the smith cuts a piece from a small rod with the hot chisel [Figure XIII], sharpens it on both ends, bends the points on the corner of the anvil, and forges the head above the point a bit broader so that the cramp can be driven in well.
b) Among the agricultural implements, the masterpiece of the blacksmith may be the pitch fork (dung fork). A triangular point will be forged first at the front of one piece of iron and the remaining part will be drawn into a sheet that one forges around the iron cotter with the hammer and welds it together. This latter operation provides the hole through which the handle of the fork will be fastened. At this point, the smith takes another piece of iron and gives it a triangular point on each end as long as the former but leaves a flat piece of iron between both points that is as long as the interval should amount to between both the outside triangular points of the pitch fork. He forges both prongs then at a right angle on the edge of the anvil and welds the iron at the mid point between both prongs over the first
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point and below the mortise. The prongs will finally be heated only to red and bent a little.
c) The fittings for a horse consist of a horseshoe and the nails necessary for it. For the horseshoe, one cuts a piece of iron, that has approximately the breadth and length of the horseshoe, from a bar of pattern iron with the chisel [Figure XIII], gives it welding heat and forges one half first. The smith already knows to guide the iron on the anvil so that its breadth exceeds its thickness and that the end will be more narrow than the bend. As soon as one half is completely forged, then the foreman strikes against the high edge of the iron with his forging hammer, that until now is still straight and bends it by this means according to the form of a half horseshoe. Everyone knows that on each end of the horseshoe there is a peg. To form this, the foreman lays the iron in such a manner on the anvil that the end projects over the edge of the anvil which one wants to put on, and the journeyman knocks this part over with the sledgehammer. In just this instant, the iron will again be turned around on the anvil, one directs the sledgehammer onto the pegs and forges them broader. On this, the foreman sets the fuller which is similar to the chisel [Figure XIII], at the middle of each side of the horseshoe on which the pegs stand. The journeyman
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strikes the head of the hammer with the sledgehammer and the foreman moves the fuller continuously along the bending of the half horseshoe. This gives the horseshoe the groove or the indentation by which the head of the horseshoe nail will be partially covered so that they will not easily be abraded off. Who now doesn't see, that one must bore these holes through the groove through which the horseshoe nails will be driven? The dull point of the horseshoe stamp [Figure XV] stamps the holes first and then one puts the horseshoe on a block and punches the hole completely with the pointed hammer [Figure XIV]. The foreman holds the hammer and the journeyman strikes the head of the hammer with the sledgehammer. The entire job is executed by the blacksmith in a half of a quarter hour and with the same speed he forges the other half just like the first. Finally the horseshoe will be made red hot again, and finished with a hand hammer or completely smoothed up. In doing this, the holes are closed again on the side that has no groove and must therefore be opened up again with a horse shoe drift [Figure XXXVII]. A few horseshoes have a grip in the bend; that is, a small peg and this will be welded on when the shoe is already finished. The nails are sharpened by the blacksmith with the cotter hammer and he strikes the head on the horseshoe nail header [Figure XXXV b]. The manufacture
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of the nails though will be extensively discussed in the following volume. The necessities of the metal work of the horse itself has already been remarked upon in the descriptions of the tools for the fittings Page 218.
d) The fittings for a coach require the greatest skill of the blacksmith and therefore one has chosen this example all the more gladly. It will be prefaced here though, so that the parts of such a town carriage are familiar to the reader. Without that, everything will not be comprehensible in spite of one having taken pains to make the parts known by descriptions.

With the wheels, the artisan makes the beginning of the fittings and must furnish the surface of the wheel as well as the nave with durability with iron. 1) The felloes of the wheel can be covered in two ways, with several flat iron bars that are as long as one felloe and that the smith calls strakes or with a tire. If the strakes need to be strong, then the blacksmith selects pattern iron, that is approximately as broad as the face of the wheel, if they should be thin then he cuts the bar into two smaller rods with the chisel [Figure XIII]. In both cases, he cuts with this same instrument pieces of iron that are just as long as a felloe and first draws out of such a piece
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the half strakes along the breadth of the felloe with the sledgehammer. With the straking stamp [Figure XVIa] he pre-punches, as with the horseshoe, the holes and punches them through completely with the straking punch. In this last operation however, the strake lies not on a block but rather on the hole ring [Figure XVI b], presumably because the holes of the strake must be larger. At this point, he measures the wheel to see whether the strake is broad enough, and then forges out the other half of the strake in just this same manner. For the forward wheels, the whole strake consists of six or seven holes; for the rear wheels, eight holes. Finally each strake will be scarfed on both ends so that, upon being fit, the scarfed place on one will come to lie on the scarfed end of another strake. Through this joint a common nail is driven. When all strakes are made, then they will be completely smoothed and fastened to the wheel. Each strake will be laid red hot on the wheel in such a manner that their middle comes to lie on the joints of the two felloes. The foreman holds it in the middle with the wheel tongs [Figure XXIX] and when it projects beyond the wood on the side that is turned towards him then he sets the jaw with the hook [a] underneath against the felloe and pushes the strake back with the peg [b] of the other jaw. If the strake stands out on the opposite side then he turns
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the tongs around and draws the strake back with the hook [a]. Two journeymen at either end of the strake hook the hooks of the wheel hook [Figure XXX b] under the felloe and bend the strake according to the radius of the wheel. Through each hole of the strake a hole in the wood will be bored with the wheel drill [Figure XL] and the strake fastened with nails. The smith gives these nails a strong head in the large nail header [Figure XXXIV] easily. This job, one pursues with all strakes of wheels and fastens them not only with nails but also with by "burning in". If the surface of the wheel will be covered with a single tire, then one forges it out from only two equal sized halves, for which the strongest pattern iron will be used. The smith makes each part exactly like a strake, forges it round on the wheel, measure it off properly, and finally welds both pieces together on the beak iron [Figure XLIV]. The hoop will likewise be placed on the wheel hot and pressed into it completely with the tire hook [Figure XXXI]. The short end of the bar [b] the smith sets against the felloe, grabs the tire with the hook [c], and pulls it onto the wheel with the long end [a]. The whole will be fastened with only twelve nails in all. 2) The hollow wooden cylinder into which the axle of the wheel passes is called the nave and this must be made durable externally and internally with an iron ring.
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So that it does not spring apart, the smith lays four rings around the nave, on the raised section under the spokes on each side, one; and one on each end. Both of the former are ordinary flat rings, the latter generally amount to two or three inches in breadth and the smith gives them curved lines for decoration with the S hammer [Figure XX] and parallel lines with the tire chisel. With these rings the manufacture of rings will be described once and for all and will be prefaced for this reason. They will first be drawn out into a flat and thin bar, after which the smith bends it on the beak iron [Figure XLIV], measures it off according to the circumference of the nave, and welds it together on the same tool. All four rings of the nave will be fastened merely by being driven on. Even so it is important, that the bored out hole of the nave be preserved, that it doesn't project, and this is effected by a strong ring in the opening of the hole that the smith calls the box. One such ring is two inches thick and will be inserted into the wood because its inner circumference must run parallel to the circumference of the nave as is easily understood. The blacksmith therefore first makes a slot with the straight box chisel [Figure XLI a] and takes away as much of the wood with the curved box chisel [b] as the thickness of the ring amounts to. He makes the opening completely smooth with the box reamer [Figure XLII].
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The box will also be fastened merely by being driven on. With these processes, the smith mounts both the front and rear wheels. The chassis is particularly subjected to force and therefore the smith must confer strength to it especially by means of iron fittings. 1) Each axle he sets into two strong pieces of metal and just as many rings for durability during friction and selects for this the hardest iron. Both of the axle sheets lie half below and above the axle along its entire length. One forges them out of a piece of iron with the sledgehammers, sets the bending iron [Figure VII] in the hole of the smiths' anvil [Figure VIII] and strikes the even sheets round into the slot of the bending iron with the strong and round peen of the sledgehammer. With the sheet tongs [Figure XXXIII], the smith lays it on the axle at red heat, so that they will be completely sunken into the wood and he fastens it with small nails. On the end of the axle, the shank ring will be driven on which the smith has given two holes with a drift [Figure XXXVI] on the hole ring [Figure XVI b]. Through both of these holes and through a hole in the end of the axle, the lentil will be driven, a strong nail, that restrains the wheel so that it does not fly off. On the opposite end of the axle, a ring is placed as well that one calls the bearing ring. The wheel strikes against this ring during movement. The lentil is forged by the blacksmith like a strong nail
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and instead of a head a piece of iron is welded on that he draws out afterwards with the peen of the hammer into a sheet, the cap, and he bends it a bit with the hammer. 2) The frame of the chassis is acted upon particularly strongly by friction, and one positions an iron ring. This will be forged in two halves flat with the hammer as the horseshoe is forged, measured along a wooden border, welded together, sunken into the wood red hot and fastened with nails. 3) For just this reason, a sheet lies along the length of the stool on which a border is fastened and the surfaces of the upper frame that the stool touches directly. The sheet is called the shell sheet by the smiths. Both will be drawn from a rod, browned, burned in, and nailed on. 4) In the middle of the wooden (parts) a large hole is bored through in which a strong large nail is driven that holds the upper frame and the chassis together. One gives it a high round head that is first formed roughly, made white hot and shaped with a swage hammer [Figure XXIV and XXV]. On the lower end, the hole will be punched with a drift in order to hold the large nail fast with a small iron wedge or pin. 5) Day to day experience shows that the shaft of the wagon is held by two wooden arms. Around these one adds reinforcement by means of a thick piece of metal that they surround underneath and on both
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sides. The smith calls it the shelf band. It will be rounded on both sides following being drawn along the horns of the beak iron [Figure XLIV] so that one slides it onto the wooden arms and the shaft can lean upon them. The sheet, arms, and the shaft bores through two strong bolts and holds the latter. They will be forged like nails, and on the thin ends one gives them either a hole or a tenon if the shaft is not to be removable or, by contrast, a screw with a special rectangular nut. All screws, the blacksmith forges first like a nail, holds them in a vice and turns the threads with a screw plate [Figure XLVI]. The nut is a rectangular piece of iron in which one first punches a hole with the nut hammer [Figure XXVI] and turns the screw threads with a steel screw that fits into the hole of the screw plate, with which one has cut the screw itself. On the rectangular head of the steel tap, the smith puts the turning iron [Figure XLV] in order to comfortably turn it using its leverage. This applies to all screws in the following text. 6) On the forward end of the shaft two sheets are laid over and beneath as was done for the production of the axles and on the outer ends a ring will be driven on. A strong rod bores through this and the shaft that
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holds the thick strap on the harness of the horses tightly. 7) On both the arms that the shaft holds, a wooden spring level lies on which the horses of the wagon pull. They are fastened onto the arms with two strong screws and will be held on each end by a rod that the smiths call the stroke rod. The rod and all remaining rods of this type that will be named in the following text, the blacksmith either forges round or, following the present fashion, hexagonal and gives these knobs here and there that decorate bars of the architectural type. In forging the rods, the smith leaves thick pieces remaining for the knobs that will be merely formed roughly by the peen of the hammer. The German knobs are only short and flat, the French, however, which at present are very fashionable, are long and very highly raised. With this prefaced, now the origin of these bars will be illustrated. The smith first forges a part of the bar up to the finial, then lays the bar on the anvil in such a way that the outermost end of the section lies on the edge, strikes with the sledgehammer on the place which rests directly on the edge of the anvil, gradually turns the bar around and by this means makes one elevated projecting part. When all parts of the rod have been suitably worked with the hammer, then one smooths the thin parts that are to be square or hexagonal with a
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smoothing hammer [Figure XIIa,b] and the knobs are smoothed in the swage hammer [Figure XXIV,XXV]. The processes for doing this have already been described in the foregoing (text). Finally the bars will be clamped in the vice and completely finished with the file. The rod of which we were actually speaking is straight and has a bent flap on one end though on the other end is a longish round piece of metal. The flap lies on the strong wood between both axles and in a hole of the flap and the axle a screw is put with its nut that holds the rod tightly to this end. The piece of metal at the other end will be beaten around the spring bar and fastened with nails. On each end of the spring balance and in the middle of every spring tree bar on which the harness of the horse will hang a staple is struck in that holds the strap tightly through which the spring balance and the spring tree bar will be united. 8) Finally there is a thick sheet, the mud sheet, which is driven on the end of each forward axle on the strong central wood whose purpose one already perceives from the appellation. Immediately on the chassis, the box rests and because this automatically catches the eye, the smith thus takes particular care in its decoration. 1) If it is wooden, then it is held fast by eight strong screws. Two fasten the box to the chassis, two go between the footboards that also are covered by sheet iron, two through the stool and two through the saddle wood. 2) The forks are two irons on the posts of the box, that bear the harness, on which the box cushion rests. For this purpose, they are bent into a circle on the beak iron on both ends. On the tourist carriage, the forks and the posts are made of iron. 3) On both sides, the box will be held by two decorative rods, to which the smith gives the form of a Latin S. They will be made like a rod and are bent free hand on the anvil with the hammer. Each has a flap on both ends through which the hole for the screw passes, which fastens it to the coach. Both of the forward bars on each side of the box rest on the underside on the prop of the box and above, it leans on the brackets of the box. The smith calls this the box joist. The bar underneath the box is called the bearing joist and rests above on the stool and below against the bearing wood. 4) Two straight bars of just this type stand under the carriage. They are called the mid joists and hold the stool and the saddle wood together. 5) The board below the box, which one calls the forward baggage board is screwed on with four screws and on both narrow edges a metal sheet is nailed on. 6) This
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same part will be held to the beam of the box with six strong screws.

Beneath the trunk, or the actual coach, the 1) windlass can be noticed, with which one can pull in the straps that the box carries. Each strap is fastened at the front under the box on a spindle and at the rear on the windlass mentioned above. Indeed this is called a windlass in common speech but there is nothing other than one or two cog wheels next to each other with a click pawl. For each windlass there are two ordinary iron arms on the rear axle screwed on with a special screw for each arm, that passes through the axle or on a decorative rod that has two arms above. In both cases there is a round hole on the end of each arm in which a movable spindle runs. On each end of the spindle the arms, which stand out from each other the breadth of the reins, project beyond two round pulleys on a peg that is held tightly by a nut. In a German windlass only one disc has teeth; with the French, both do. From the cog wheels to the click, the manufacture of all the named parts of the windlass are completely understood from the foregoing text. The cog wheel is forged from one piece of iron into a round sheet and annealed because one cuts teeth with a chisel cold, and finishes it with a file. The
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teeth are turned against the rear axle, and therefore in this wood a click or, to use the term of the smith, the lip, must be fastened. The lip for the German windlass holds a joint on the axle. So that it can catch the teeth all the better, they thus have an angled slot at the front that is cut cold. The smith drives the whole thing out a bit with the wedge hammer [Figure XXIII b]. Both of the cog wheels of the French windlass have a common click that consists merely of broad bare sheet that is fastened at the bottom with a clamp and above is bent against the teeth of the wheels. With both types of windlasses there is a pointed hook in the middle of the spindle that is put through a hole in the straps. The smith strikes a hole through the spindle with a drift [Figure XXXVI], sticks the tenon of the hook through this hole and rivets it. 2) Between both windlasses, the footman step is fastened immovably onto the rear carriage with two strong screws. One forges it out of an iron rod, and bends both arms on the edge of the anvil and sharpens them a bit. The smith gives both arms flaps with the hammer through which the holes for the screws will be struck with a drift. 3) The rear baggage board will likewise be held fast with a screw and on both sides strong metal hand grips will be screwed on, onto which
{Page 248}
the servant takes hold when he jumps onto the carriage. The smith first gives the handgrip its familiar form with a hammer when he has formed the thin parts with a smooth hammer [Figure XIII] and the molding in the middle with a swage hammer [Figure XXIV, XXV] beforehand. Each handle will be held with two screws and the sheet with one and all these screws bore through the baggage board and rear axle. 4) Ahead of the baggage board stand further wooden decorations so the smith provides two such supports like the box supports.
In front of each door of the body, two strong iron steps pass through the beam and are held tightly on their inner end by a screw. It is a very strong nail or bolt that bears the leather step. Not to mention other small parts, there is yet the swing ring to mention finally, rings that are fastened by a link on the body and unite the body with the beam by means of a strap.

Note: The locksmith in Berlin makes nothing more on the coach other than the flying latch and the "Fish bands" on the door that are found at their places.

B. For the cutting implements that the smith makes belong besides the cooking knives, the ax, the hatchet, and scythe.
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The forging of the last pieces belongs in this text because these instruments are the commonest.
a) For an axe, the smith takes the broadest pattern iron and draws it out to exactly the breadth of the ax or yet just as long. He sees by this the bit of the ax and the iron plate how should be beaten together. Therefore he forges it at welding heat a bit thinner on both narrow ends, thin at the middle. He leaves this piece of metal, when it has the described form and forges a piece of steel according to the breadth of the ax and corresponding to the thickness of its edge. At this point he makes the iron red hot again and beats it together in such a manner that both the thin areas lie over each other but places the steel between both the beaten together ends, so that the steel projects a bit. He brings both metals in this position into the coals and up to welding heat and welds them together. Just above an opening remains for the handle hole and in this opening he puts the handle mandrel [Figure XLVIII]. On this tool he can give the heated iron its required shape externally with the hammer, and the handle hole itself takes on the form of the handle rod at the same time.
b) The forging of a hatchet differs little from the manufacture of the ax. The
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iron, out of which the smith will forge, will likewise be at once as long extended under the hammer as the length of the hatchet, only it will be welded together without the steel lying between. The right side of the hatchet, he hollows out a bit with the peen of the hammer, the left remains even, and on this side the steel will be welded on. It must be forged appropriately as with the ax and be fluxed and scarfed beforehand. The handle hole will be forged out as with the ax.
c) The iron for the scythe, the smith forms according to the familiar form, and gives it a tang behind which will be beaten around and caught on the edge of the anvil. On the same tool, he bends the tip a bit round. The steel, he forges also along the length of the scythe, cleans the iron and steel, and welds both metals together on the smooth side of the scythe. Then he lays the heated scythe on the edge of the anvil and catches the back with the peen or a set hammer, so that he bends the back around a bit. Normally the cutting instruments are marked by the marking hammer [Figure XXII]. In grinding all these pieces there is nothing more to mention other than that one presses first hard and finally though when the grade is made, softly
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against the grindstone and the instrument is turned around often.

VI. The farrier and armorer learn their trade in two years if they pay an apprenticeship fee; without it, though, they serve four years. Their journeyman travel, as usual, three years and in every work place their masters present six Pfennigs or one Groeschen if they find no work at a place. Their masterpiece consists of two horseshoes, a pitch fork, and an ax.

Harold // 5:04 AM
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[BigBody]

Harold // 5:04 AM
______________________

TRADES AND ARTS


The Locksmith
Copyright: Harold B. Gill, III; 1991
Peter N. Sprengel
Handwerke und Kuenste
Volume 6 Section 2
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The Locksmith
I. Contents. In the workshop of the locksmith, many more decorative works are manufactured beyond those produced in the blacksmiths' shop. He forges his products using iron and steel with hammer and anvil yet, in addition, he gives these metals ingenious forms with chisels, files, die stocks, swages, and other different tools. Generally he occupies himself with the metalwork of doors, windows, and chests, among which the locks merit particular mention. It is somewhat easier for skillful locksmiths to manufacture the works of the remaining decorative iron workers who will be mentioned in the following sections and one can rightly say that from these all of these other artisans originate. It will have a great influence on the next sections when the ability necessary for locksmithing is brought to light.

Note: In this and in part in the last section of the previous volume the splendid description of the locksmith from Mr. Duehamel in the ninth part of Der Schauplatz der Kuenste und Handwerke has done good service.
{Page 24}
Also, nothing has been borrowed from this writing until it had been shown to a skilled local locksmith for advice, because the French and German tradesmen often deviate from one another in their processes.

II. Familiarity with the majority of materials of the locksmith can be assumed from the last section of the former volume.

A. The reader will recall from that section that the locksmith can use the soft iron (Volume 5 p.200). For a few works he purchases iron sheet of different strengths that he recieves from the local iron forge.

B. He works steel only for springs and in the making of his tools (Volume 5 p.202).

C. Copper is used in soldering strong work and he facilitates the flow of this metal not with borax, but with pulverized glass instead with the same result and no expense.

D. The tiny pieces, he solders with brass and here he also uses pulverized glass. Plates on the lock are made of strong brass sheet and he sometimes covers the iron metalwork with thinner sheets of this type.

E. Coal and charcoal, he uses to heat the iron (Volume 5 p. 203.)

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III. A large space to accomodate the materials to be used will serve as the workshop of the locksmith. Only the ordinary materials can be addressed since the locksmith often manufactures tools in special situations that one can find in the least shop. Meanwhile, many have been described already with the blacksmith.

A. The locksmith generally forges only thin iron pieces and therefore their forge is only a small forge. He must however heat large bars in a few instances so he lays another stone on the bellows and by this means augments the strength and the momentum of this instrument. To the forge belongs a quenching trough, coal wisp, coal hooks, poker, and sand ladle as with the blacksmiths.

B. During forging, the ordinary smiths tongs of the blacksmiths are indispensible, though they are somewhat smaller in this shop. Furthermore, here one sees pinch tongs for mountings, sharp and broad tongs for all his products.

C. The anvils in this shop are of three types; 1) The smiths' anvil [Plate I, Figure VIII] is smaller than the anvil of the blacksmith since it weighs not more than two hundredweight. On the narrow side, a horn [a] arises since the locksmith
{Page 26}
must often hold this tool with his hand while forging. On the same side also, there is a hole [b] on the face in which spring forks, supports of the swages and other small tools will be fixed. In the anvil stump, a chisel [c] is fixed also. The beak iron and stock anvil stand on a small anvil stump next to the workbench, an ordinary strong table on which the small tools of the locksmith lie. 2) The beak iron [Figure IX] is only half as large as the blacksmith's and has a round and a four edged horn as is well known. On the work table, there are smaller tools of this type. 3) The smooth face of the block anvil (teest) [Figure X] is about a half foot square. Its purpose is that the iron is laid on it when one polishs it or works it with the hammer cold.

D. The locksmith also welds the iron with cross peen and sledge hammers that weigh between 25 and 30 pounds. One can easily see that he cannot do without the sledge hammer, cold chisel, chisel, pointed hammer, and the smooth hammer of the blacksmith. Volume 5 p. 207.

E. The chisel. 1) One breaks up the iron cold with the hard chisel, and therefore its broad cutting edge must be well steeled. For this same operation he also uses 2) the bench chisel [Figure XIV]
{Page 27}
that is just a bit smaller than the former. The appearence of these instruments is common knowledge and it just remains to be mentioned that a few cut straight and, with others, the cut is half round. 3) Some cross chisels runs together at one end to a point [Figure XII] and some have their edge cut away obliquely [Figure XIII]. Both types have at [a] a small broad point with which the fittings in the key bit of the lock can be cut out cold. 4) The set chisel [Figure XV] is the set hammer of the blacksmith. One will still remember that an opening or cut out in the iron will be made with this, for example, in the forging of the knobs on the rods.

F. The sheet shears are exactly like the bench shears that have already been described. It is stronger though and doesn't stand as the copper and brass worker's do on a stump, but their shank will be clamped in a vice instead when one wants to cut up iron or brass sheet.

G. The description of the vice is on page 215 of the preceding volume. They are needed in this shop more frequently, than they are in the blacksmith shop and therefore one notices a special German and French vice on the workbench of each worker. Small pieces will be held fast in a file vice [Figure XVI] in his hand. It is a small vice that instead of having a spindel of the
{page 28}
large vices often has a brass wing nut (a). The form and use of the ring vice has already been described on page 9 of Volume 5.

Note: The ironworkers can indeed make their own vices, as they are compelled to see if they are to repair an injury, only they save the cost and difficulty if they buy this tool. In the Duchy of Bergen in Westphalia are locksmiths that branch off into just the smithing of vices and they sell these to the remaining locksmiths by weight. One pays four Gr. for each pound.

H. What the blacksmiths call swage hammers are called swages by the locksmiths. It is therefore not necessary to repeat the description of these tools, but this must be said; the locksmith needs these instruments in more instances than the blacksmith. They shape not only the knobs on decorated rods with these tools but, in addition to these, the locksmiths even all kinds of elegant knobs in the swages; for example, the knobs on the grip of the French key, the handle of the doors and chests, indeed even the wood screws and many other items of manufufacture that would be tiresome to work with the file making them an important tool. Therefore, frequently they make a swage for these products and in this way save much time and difficulty. The swages of the locksmith also consist of a hammer
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and a bottom swage. Volume 5 Page 210. Only with the key swage [Figure XVIII] is a hammer unnecessary but a mandrel takes its place instead. The key swage is a small anvil on whose face half cylindrical depressions of different sizes are made. The locksmith bends the flat sheet iron into a tube in this instrument. They bend the heated iron with a hammer around a round mandrel, lay it in a depression in the key swage that fits it, and turn it continually around and strike steadily on the piece of metal with a hammer. By this means the heated sheet takes on the form of the depression. Therefore the locksmith possesses a great quantity of mandrels of all types. The tubes of the German keys will be forged round in this type of swage and from this, the tool has received its name (key swage).
The swages can easily be manufactured. The locksmith files the knob for which he wants to form a swage out of steel completely and forges the swage hammer with the swage block out of steel as well. He always gives the bottom swage a square tang [Figure XVIII a] because one sets this during use in a hole of the smith's anvil [Figure VIII b] and the bottom swage is fastened by this. In the manufacture of this tool one makes the face of the swage block white hot, lays the filed knob that is the pattern on the middle of the face of the swage block and drives
{page 30}
it halfway into the metal with a hammer. Therefore the knob must be separated into two pieces already along its length. The swage hammer will be heated similarly and, into the middle of its face, the other half of the knob will be driven. The key swage of the locksmith will be manufactured in just this way using round mandrels of different thicknesses. The swages give the large iron an decorative design.

I. The die stocks of the sheets and screws. The window die stock [Figure XVII 1,2,] is two narrow but strong iron plates that are rivetted together at [a] and [b] so that one can just stick a piece of thick sheet iron into the cleft between them. Both plates have the familiar form of the flap on the hasp of a window and the size is also trimmed like this piece of hardware. The plates out of which the flaps originate will be forged from iron and placed into the gap of the die stock in such a way that it projects a bit on all sides from the die stock. The die stock will then be clamped with the sheet in its cleft in the vice and the projecting band of the sheet will be taken off on both sides with the cold chisel and hammer following the length of the die stock. One easily notices that by this operation, the sheet has taken on the shape of the die stock. Half of the die stock is steeled on the interior so that the chisel does not injure it. Small pieces of this type are always elaborated in die stocks or follow
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sheet metal patterns. From here, a more convenient piece will yet be spoken of, 2) With the cutting die stock, the locksmith cuts pointed wood screws [Figure XX]. They closely resemble shears except that the narrow surfaces at [a,b] rest precisely on one another. These surfaces are made of steel and together form female screws of various sizes. The thick end of a pointed peg that one wants to turn into a wood screw, the locksmith lays in a hole of the screw stock, presses both pieces of the stock tightly together by their grips and twists the peg with the tongs out of the hole of the stock. Both halves of the stock are united only by a rivet at [a], therefore they are positioned as close to each other as the thickness of the peg and together they cut the screw threads into the peg. 3) The key stock [Figure XIX] is a small piece of metal that is bent following a figure that the eye can see best in the illustration. One holds the bit of the key with these when the arrangement of the key is going to be cut out with the cross chisel. The bit lies on both surfaces at [a]. The stock will be clamped in a vice and thereby the bit will be prevented from being able to give way during this work.

K. The frame saw [Figure XXI] is saw that is forged of the hardest steel and is fastened in an iron bow [adc]. The saw blade itself [ab] has a small rectangular hole on each end
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through which tiny pegs on the frame hook at [a] and [b] and through which the side of the frame can be fastened. Meanwhile, there are also pegs beneath [a] and [b] that fasten crosswise. By means of a screw [bc] which grips the bow at [b], the saw blade [ab] can be stretched more since with the hard iron it must be fastened tightly, with soft iron though it must be gently tensioned. The sawing of iron is a tiresome job and therefore one uses this instrument only when one can find no other suitable device. The saw blade [ab] must be well hardened and for this the locksmith has a special instrument, the stretching frame [Figure XXIII] because the steel rolls up in hardening when it is not stretched out. The stretching frame is made entirely of iron and the arm [cbd] will be set in merely by a peg in the hole [c]. At [a] and [b] are hooks by which the saw blade will be tightly held and extended by the arm [cbd]. The saw blade will be best hardened like all other instruments if one burns powdered oxen hoofs on the steel that are spread on it and the metal is allowed to get red hot and is cooled in water. With this work, the greasiness of the horn serves best.

L. With the bow jig [Figure XXIV, XXV] the pegs of the bow or handle of the German keys will be struck into the shanks.
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During this operation, the slot in the middle of this instrument lies on the interior tip of the bow.

M. The files are among the most useful tools of the locksmith and therefore he owns small and large ones of various types. The most important are those with which the large surfaces are polished. 1.) Among these are the strongest rubbers [Figure XXVIII]. They are 1.5 feet long and as wide as they are thick. In the forepart it is narrower and its cut is the coursest. These as well as all other files have a wooden handle. With the remaining files of this type, The breadth is greater than the thickness and their length including the courseness of their cut gradually decreases. According to these attributes, these follow, one after another: 2.) The Hand files [Figure XXIX]; 3.) The rough files [Figure XXX]; 4.) the smooth files [Figure XXXI]. The last has a cut so fine that one can hardly notice them. Small things and cavities are filed by the locksmith with small files of various forms; flat, round, half-round, triangular, etc. If a place is to remain unpolished after filing then he wraps up a part of the file with paper.

Note: The largest rubbers weigh in at 20 pounds. In contrast 20 small files go into 1 pound.

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N. The burnisher [Figure XL] resembles a thick partially bent wire of steel on a wooden grip. The locksmith seldom uses it and then only on small articles.

O. The header [Figure XLI] is already familiar enough from the previous section as is

P. The die stock with its handles for the manufacture of screws with their female screws that are described already in the last section of the preceding volume.

Q. Large holes, the locksmith forges into the iron with a drift, a tapering steel [Figure XXXIII]. For very large holes the iron is laid upon a hole ring [Figure XXXII]; for smaller ones, upon a hole disk [Figure XLII] (Vol. 5 p. 214). The drift is driven with the hammer.

R. Small holes, the artisans bore with different bits. 1.) The bit of the locksmith is just stronger and longer than the same tool of the brass worker. 2.) The brace [Figure XXXVIII] is exactly the same as the cabinetmaker's brace except that its frame is also made of iron. The iron disc [a] moves on a peg and is placed on the chest when drilling. The bit [cd] which will actually make the hole can be taken out and in return
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large or small bits can be fastened in. With both drills, the bit must often be doused with oil during use. Holes that are to be the same width all the way through will be drilled out this way and also merely widened. The last goal the locksmith also reaches with 3.) The scraping awl [Figure XLIII], a four edged drift.

S. The mandrel is already known well enough. One sees square and round, small and large in rather considerable number in the locksmith's shop. In widening the large holes with a mandrel, the iron will also be laid on a hole ring [Figure XXXII].

T. The punch chisel of the locksmith [Figure XXVII] closely resembles a pointed hammer. Its dull steel point is round in a few cases, in others half-round, or also oval. The locksmith uses these for the same purpose as the remaining metalworkers use the punches; namely to chase out the iron of the metal fittings of a trunk, for example. The thin iron lies on a lead table during this work and the punch chisel is driven by a hammer. Therefore it also has a head.

U. The crescent has received its name because of its form [Figure XXVI]. They have a handle and a head like the punch chisel but, instead of a dull point as on the latter, this one receives a half-round sharp chisel resembling a crescent. In the manufacture of a wrought iron railing SPRENGWERKE, they must do excellent service together with the
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V. Spring fork. This tool consists of two pieces. The first part projects like a strong fork [Figure XXXIXb]. In use its tenon will be put into the hole of the smith's anvil. The fork of the other part [Figure XXXIX a] makes a right angle with its iron handle.

W. The wrenchs are each familiar as an iron with a square ring on each end through which female screws will be tightened; as is also the screwdriver as a stick that one sets in the slot on the head of a woodscrew, if one wants to take it out.

X. On the rivetting iron [Figure XXXV], a square iron with a steel face, the locksmith lays the head of the rivet during riveting if he can not do otherwise.

Y. The star wedge [Figure XXXVI] has foremost a broad and sharpened point like a small chisel, because one strikes the sheet cold with this as it will yield underneath.

Z. The Ring chisel [Figure XXXVII] is cut out on one end like an arc and has an edge on the outermost point. It will be needed in making fish bands on doors.

AA. The tire iron one grips next to a long sheet in a hoop vise if one wants to file the sheet so that it will not bend [Figure XLIV].

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BB. The corer [Figure XXXIV] is a pointed hammer with a dull point that is rounded like a half sphere. It is used if one wants to punch large holes.

CC. Picklocks of d sizes on a ring [Figure XLV], the locksmith calls closing tools. Therefore he also says that he has closed a lock when he has opened it.

IV. The metalwork on the buildings, trunks, and warddrobes occupy the locksmith most of the time. Therefore one will seek to bring them to light thoroughly. The remaining ordinary work of the locksmith will be easily explained then out of the description of these pieces. Beforehand there are only two other things to mention: 1) It is originally the locksmith's work to make all the iron work of a building, be it for durability or for decoration, excepting the largest armatures for which his forge is to small. These therefore must be left to the blacksmith. 2) The description of the welding and forging of the iron is provided by the last part of the former volume, page 225 every time in the following text.

A. The beginning will be the metal work of a door with a French lock and with fish bands.

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a) It is not a lie that one leaves home far more securely with a French lock on the door than with a German one and of this, at least in Berlin, one is already convinced by the fact that the local locksmiths make German locks only rarely. It cannot well be taken for granted that every arrangement and mechanism of such locks is known and therefore it is important to mention first something about both developments. The manufacture of the parts will be shown all the easier. An illustration is indespensible in this and [Figures XLVI, XLVII, XLVIII, XLIX] will therefore make all the parts of the lock comprehensible. [Figure XLVI] presents the lock as it appears when one opens it. [Figure XLVII] is the removed cover of the lock and [Figure XLVIII] is the bolt of the lock with the tumbler shown in a turned position. The tumbler lies at bottom; the bolt, above; in contrast, in [Figure XLVI] the tumbler is above and the bolt lies under this. [Figure XLIX] is the French key. All parts of the lock are surrounded by a four sided box of sheet iron [Figure XLVI abc]. The floor and the upright sheet [ac] is bent from one piece and together is called the lock sheet. On the sheet [ac], the brim STULPE is rivetted on, a thin iron rod that is as broad as the side sheet but a little longer. The remaining periphery of the floor surrounds the side sheet [abc] or the
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border. It is bent from a narrow sheet and holds the floor and the cover [Figure XLVII] together by means of a few small irons with pegs on both ends like [a] and [b]. Therefore the border must be as high as the brim sheet [ac]. The cover is merely a flat plate as large as the lock sheet. It will be put on first when the locksmith fastens the lock and then holds all the parts together along with the lock plate. Therefore, for each pin of [Figure XLVI] one notices a hole in the cover [Figure XLVII]. With the help of the letters in the [Figures XLVI and XLVII], the reader can easily distinguish in the following text which pin belongs to which hole of the cover.
The lock depicted consists of the actual lock in the middle, a spring latch above and a night bolt under the actual lock. 1) The most important part of the lock is the bolt of which one can only see the upper part in [Figure XLVI] however, because the rest is obscured by the tumbler. Only in [Figure XLVIII] is it completely revealed. The head of the bolt is indicated by [gh] which is apparently somewhat thicker than the shank [gf]. When one locks the lock the head grips into the lock plate on the door post. In the middle of the shank is a narrow slot [ik] and at [m] a rod in this slot allows the bolt to shift back and forth. Instead of this, a few locksmiths give the bolt
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a STUDEL the description of which will appear with that of the springing latch. The rod [g] holds a narrow brass piece, the tensioning spring tightly under the bolt, which prevents the bolt from being easily pushed back. On top, as well as underneath, the bolt has slots. On the undermost, the bit of the key grips the bolt and therefore one calls it the bolt toe [lm]. The uppermost are called spreaders [no]. The tumbler fastens in these last indentations of the bolt. A few locksmiths give the bolt three spreaders, only on the illustrated lock the end of the bolt shows the location of the third. The tumbler [Figure XLVI, XLVIII pqr] holds the bolt firmly both when the lock is open and when it is locked and at the same time prevents it from being opened by the pick lock. It consists of a small spring [pq], the foremost part of which [q] rests on the bolt and therefore it must be as broad as the bolt and made out of a strong lug [qr] that makes a right angle to the spring and projects at [r] somewhat below the bolt. The end [p] of the upper part of the tumbler represents the position of a spring and is therefore wound around a rectangular rod. A few locksmiths make the tumbler and spring out of two separate pieces and in this case the spring rests on the tumbler. At [q], the spring has a right angled catch that falls into the spreader [n,o,] and holds the bolt fast. He calls the spreader the tumbler.
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In [Figure XLVI], the lug of the tumbler lies above; in [Figure XLVII] though it is under the bolt while in the last illustration the bolt is represented turned. The mechanism is located under the bolt [Figure XLVI vtuw]. It insures that not just any key that can be inserted into the lock, locks the lock. It consists of the MITTELBRUCH [tu] which runs parallel to the floor of the lock and stops just short of the bolt toe of the bolt, of two small supports [t and u] that bear the MITTELBRUCH sheet and it stands approximately half of the diameter of the sweep of the bit of the key from the floor of the lock, and of the wards, one or two upright sheets of metal that are bent into a semicircle and end at [v] and [w]. These peices of metal encircle a hole in the middle breach, MITTELBRUCH into which the key fits, because the round circle of the key hole for the shank of the key in the floor sheet, runs parallel to the hole in the middle breach. Properly, the wards in every lock will be different so that it just stops the bit of a strange key so that it cannot reach the tumbler and bolt. Therefore, for a few locksmiths, they consist of only one narrow piece of metal, for others of two circles. Occasionally these pieces have catchs and, in a few, wards so the round piece of metal does not stand vertically but it slants onto the middle breach sheet instead. Although it is not possible to tell of all the variations of wards,
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because it depends on the licence of the master. One still notices just that below the middle breach lies a wards of precisely the size as on the sheet. In the illustrated lock it was only a circle of sheet that had catchs on both sides. This can best be seen in the form of the bit of the key [Figure XLIX]. A French key is forged out of one piece of iron and consists of a bow [ab], the shank [bc], and the bit [dc]. It is well known that the bit of the key has indentations that correspond precisely to the construction of the lock [Figure XLVI vtuw] that must be cut out. If one turns the key around in the lock then the middle breach [Figure XLVI tu] falls into the indentation of the bit [Figure XLIX fg] and the arrangement of the key siezes the wards of the lock [Figure XLVI vw]. Therefore both must correspond to each other exactly, but failing that, the key will not be able to turn around. The form of the bit on the key illustrated also requires a ward that consists of a curved piece of metal with two catchs. One will easily see this in the drawing. The bit of the key shown is somewhat bent and by this means one can also keep strange keys out of a lock, because the key hole each time has exactly the same form of the shank and the bit of its key.
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Presently the mechanism will be easily illustrated. When one turns the key to the right in the lock and it is locked then half of the bit drops under and the other half goes over the middle breach [Figure LXVI tu]. The middle breach and wards [vw] of the lock occupy the mechanism [Figure XLIX gf] completely and also the wards of the bit of the key. The lug of the tumbler [Figure XLVI sqr] projects at [sr] a little in front of the bolt and also holds open the upper half of the bit so that the lower half cannot make contact with the bolt toe of the bolt [Figure XLVIII lm] until the upper half of the bit has pushed the lug of the tumbler upwards. As soon as this happens however then it can move the bolt at [Figure XLVIII r] and drive it back. One turns the key around again so that it again leaves the bolt thus the catchs again fall into the slot [Figure XLVIII n] and again hold the bolt fast. The lock also will not be opened until one turns the key a second time this again lifts up the tumbler, grips the bolt at [Figure XLVIII m], and slides it back completely. Then the catch [q] falls into the slot [o] and therefore it follows that the bolt stands fast when the lock is open as well. In locking, all of this is simply reversed and the catchs hold the bolt fast finally at [f]. Presently one will also examine why the locksmith cannot unlock the French lock with a pick lock. {Page 44} Because the pick lock grips the lug of the tumbler [Figure XLVIII qr] thus he cannot at the same time slide back the bolt [lh]. He catches the bolt toe of the bolt [lm] so it is impossible to slide back the bolt because it holds the tumbler fast. The locksmith must understand the art of applying two picklocks at the same time. 2) The springing latch is much simpler than the lock and it is therefore easier to survey. Its purpose is to hold the door closed when the lock is open. As is well known, it will be opened with a handle. One places it as in the illustration above the lock. The name is taken from the German handle that can rightly be called a latch. All bolts including the bolt of the springing latch [Figure XLVI ABC] have at the front, a head and behind, a shank. By means of their catchs [BC] it moves itself within the STUDEL [DE] and therefore it must have a head at [C] so that it does not fall out of the STUDEL. The STUDEL resembles a small clasp and is fastened at each foot to the lock plate by a rivet. Behind the catch of the bolt rests the outer end of a spring [EG] that at [G] is wound around a square peg as well. The nut [H] is an iron cylinder with a square hole and a tip which grips the catch of the bolt at [C].
{Page 45}
The tang of the handle sticks through the square hole and if one turns this downwards then the tip of the nut grasps the bolt at [C] and pushs it back. The door is then open. If one takes his hand from the handle, then the spring [EG] pushs the bolt back again. 3) The night bolt likewise consists of a bolt [IK] that has a catch at [K]. Then the bolt will be held as with the bolt of the springing latch with a small STUDEL [L]. In the lock illustrated, a nut is at [M] whose tip fastened into a slot of the bolt at [N] and the bolt closed or opened. Among other locksmiths there is a smaller knob instead on the bolt itself and in the cover of the lock there is a slot in order to allow the bolt to be slid back and forth. Under the night bolt is a small brass spring also which will not allow it to recede at all at a thrust on the door.
At present, the manufacture of a lock can be presented because the reader is acquainted with its parts.

A. On the key and especially on its bit the entire arrangement of a lock depends, and therefore the locksmith makes it first. He forges it from a measured piece of iron that he as always must carefully weld so that it is not scaled off in filing. The bit he shapes by
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forging with an added piece at both ends and the bow or a handle by means of a yet stronger doubled piece added under the bow. In this operation, he lays the place of the iron on which he will form an added piece on the edge of the smith's anvil [Figure VIII] and strikes the metal with the hammer. He repeats this, for example, on both ends of the bit so that a peg results for the bit out of which one can draw it to the required length with a hammer. Using this same procedure, he allows two pegs for the bow to be made of. The last peg he forges in a somewhat flattened form and gives it a rounded periphery with the hammer. In the mean time, he can forge the shank into a properly round shape between the bow and the bit also. Finally the bow will again be brought to red heat, a hole will be punched with a mandrel in the center and it will be forged completely round on the round horn of the stake. As is well known, the bow is not cylndrical but somewhat flat on top. One therefore places a piece of iron on [b] and [k] of [Figure XLIX] and knocks the bow down a bit at these places. One give it a few more blows at [a] in addition so that it recieves its familiar longish round shape. After the forging, the key will be annealed merely in the coals, because all that remains must be done cold and in this the file always serves best. Therefore it is important to first premise the general basis of how
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the locksmith must dexterously guide the file and then apply them to the key. The iron, whose surface one wishs to polish with the file, the locksmith always clamps into a vice and holds it fast this way; the surfaces being only flat or round. Should large pieces be polished, then one bends them around a bit at one end and the jaws of the vice hold the bent part. Failing that the piece will not be held fast in the vice. First an even surface will be filed. One always begins this work with the coarse files [Figure XXVIII]. The locksmith holds the handle of the file with his right hand and he lays his left hand on the tip. In filing, he must each time guide this tool in this way, as if he wants to touch just the middle of the surface because he often files the sides thinner than the middle to his vexation and the surface will then be lumpy. The second rule is: The file must never takes its alignment parallel with the sides of the circumference, because through this the surfaces will likewise be unequal, rather the file strokes must constantly be made at a sharp angle to the sides of the circumference. Third rule: The strokes of the file must each time cross the strokes of the former likewise at a sharp angle, so that on every side just as much is taken off the surfaces and the file marks of the former file are again removed. Thus when the coarse files are aligned from [c] to [a] on
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[Figure XLVII] for example then the sheet must be enclosed in a vice, so that one can file from [b] to [d] with the hand file. In just this manner, the rough and smooth file must take a different path on the iron each time. The cut of these files becomes progressively finer and therefore they make surfaces gradually smoother. The last rule is: One must never take a different file before until the file that the locksmith used up until this time has removed the marks of the former file; for example, the hand file must have removed all the marks of the coarse file first before the locksmith can take up the rough file. When all three course files have been used then the locksmith takes up the smooth file [Figure XXXI] on both ends and strokes back and forth with the file on the surfaces. This gives the iron a complete polish. The locksmith calls this the stripping of the iron. If a surface is to receive a better polish still, then it is just abraded with iron scale, then sometimes (very rarely) he uses tripoli, emery, and other sharp abrasives. On round surfaces, for example, the bow and shaft of a key, all of this remains the same as with the plain surfaces except that the file changes its alignment at every point. When the bit and the small knob at the end of the shank belonging to it are worked out with the file, one then rubs them down with the burnisher [Figure XL] and finally burnishes the bow [Figure XLIX ab] so that the traces of the file marks do not offend the hand
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of the future owner. Under the bow the file gives the key a knob which is rubbed and smoothed after the filing between two wooden pieces with olive oil. The most trouble caused by the key is in the mechanism and the wards. The slots of the mechanism EINRICHTUNG [Figure XLIX fg] are made by the locksmith with the frame saw [Figure XXI] and during this work the vice holds the key fast. First, however, the bit must be divided exactly into two parts beforehand with the compass because the mechanism is separated into two equal halves. In the manufacture of the wards [hi] the file cannot be used, instead they must be cut with the cross chisel [Figure XII]. The narrow sharp edges [a] of this instrument are only just as broad as the slots of the wards. In doing this, one lays the bit of the key between the arms of the key clamp [Figure XIX a] and clamps this in the vice. The hammer drives the cross chisel and therefore both the hooks of the clamp must hold that lie on the jaws of the vice so that the clamp does not give way because of the blows of the hammer.

B. Following the manufacture of the key, the locksmith moves on to the case, which surrounds the parts of the lock that on both sides will open up. He will stick this together from three pieces of iron sheet; the lock plate, the border, and the cover.
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The sheet shears or the chisel [Figure XI] give the sheets their form. From the text above, the reader will still recall, that the brim sheet STULPBLECH [Figure LXVI ac] is held together with the floor. One turns up these perpendicular raised sheets in the vice because in this way their height can best be adjusted, or also on the edge of the anvil. Mainly it is true for all sheets that they are bent cold and put on when they are forged of wrought iron, failing that one must heat it though. Even this is important for the border [abc]. This narrow sheet holds together the lock plate and the cover [Figure XLVII] and simply needs to be cut out. With this intention, the locksmith fastens six narrow pieces of iron on the side of the border sheet [Figure XLVI abc] that are a little longer than the border sheet is broad so that they project from the side of the border sheet that one has rivetted it on. Out of both protruding ends, the locksmith files pegs that will be fastened and rivetted into the holes of the cover [Figure XLVII abc] and in the same such holes of the lockplate when the entire lock is finished. The narrow iron itself [Figure XLVI abc] will be united with the border by a rivet. The holes for this rivet, one punches with a drift [Figure XXXIII] on the hole disk [Figure XLII] as with all other holes in the sheet. The holes
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for the particular rivets are only different from the rest in that they must be a bit wider on the outside of the periphery than on the inside and this can easily be effected with the reaming awl [Figure XLIII] or the bit [Figure XXXVIII]. The reason that one widens the outer circumference of the hole in this case is in order to sink the head of the rivet during the rivetting into the broader area; that is , to hide the rivet in it so that it cannot be easily noticed when it is smoothed over with a file. The rivet itself is a rod or the end of a wire. It only remains to be mentioned that the key hole is a cut with the cold chisel and after this rough finished with round and flat files. The dampness is a harmful enemy of iron, because from it a rust results on the metal and therefore the iron worker seeks to repel the moisture with an oily coating. He achieves this with pitch or also with linseed oil and he takes care to cover the box of the lock with one or the other. If he covers it with pitch, then he heats the iron red hot, allowing the pitch to become fluid on the iron and moves the sheet in such a manner that the pitch is spread out over all sides. Still it is much more common to coat the iron with linseed oil. Before the coating is applied the iron will either not be made hot or be heated only moderately. As soon as the linseed oil is carried off though, then he lays it on the coal and
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allows the bellows to be pumped slowly. The locksmith must take the iron again from the fire though at precisely the moment that it becomes black, otherwise it does not receive a pleasing black color. Sometimes the locksmith covers the box of the lock with brass plate particularly if it is noticeable in the chamber. They rivet the thin plates merely with rivets of brass wire onto the iron plates. The brim [Figure XLVI de] will be forged to a thin rod, thoroughly polished with the files, and is rivetted onto the brim plate [ac].

C. The actual lock deserves first to be remarked upon. The head of the bolt [Figure XLVIII gh] arises from an added piece like the bit of the key, and the shank [fg] will be forged corresponding to the thickness of half of the bit of the key. The file must smooth both parts. The slot [ik], one cuts out with the cold chisel and the rivet [y] on which the shank turns receives a small screw and nut on top with the screw plate so that the bolt can be taken off. The locksmith now fastens those pegs of the bolt onto the lock plate, in order to test the action with the key. Through a simple process, he can find the arrangement without much skill. He gives the bolt a locked position, sticks the key in the key hole, turns it to the right {Page 53} against the bolt and marks where the bit of the key touchs the bolt with a pencil. In this manner, he finds the point [Figure XLVIII l]. He slides the bolt all the way back and turns the key around to the left. Where the edge of the bit pushs on the bolt, that is the point [r]. Following these points he can cut out the action ANGRIFFE with a file or also with a cross chisel [Figure XII] when he has divided the line [lr] beforehand into two equal parts. The bit of the key is moved in a circle and therefore the side surfaces of the action must be inclined. As soon as the action is made, so the locksmith is allowed to move only the bolt with the key, where the catchs [Figure XLVIII q] of the tumbler lies on the bolt, and he has turned the key but once, he thus finds both the slots [n] and [o]. They were cut with the frame saw [Figure XXI], but first, when the entire lock is finished. The action and stretcher slots presently coincide with each other completely. Failing that, it causes trouble for the locksmith. The brass spring under the bolt that is covered by the bolt in the illustration will be held by the the peg [Figure XLVIII y] and is not any more intricate. In forging the tumbler [Figures XLVI, XLVIII pqrs], the locksmith leaves a piece of iron for the spring and draws it out under the hammer into a thin spring that is as broad as the bolt is thick.
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Normally one believes that all springs are forged of steel but in the French lock they are made merely of hardened iron. The locksmith allows the iron spring to become red hot after the forging and forges it cold with a wet hammer. This gives the iron a hardness of steel. Finally the forged flaps LAPPEN [qrs] of the tumbler are bent around in the vice at [a] right angle [q] as are also the catchs [q] and after this the whole is polished with the file. The locksmith manufactures the square rod [p] with the file and gives it tenons at both ends so that it, like all other rods of this type, can at last be rivetted into the lock plate. He clamps the rod in the vice and winds the end of the spring around the rod. The spring will be wrapped around the rod cold, and the locksmith holds it with the hand vice [Figure XVI] in doing this. The length of the bolt must establish the position of the rod, as can be easily observed. Most of the time the manufacture of the mechanism [Figure XLVI tuvw] is required. The mid breach sheet MITTELBRUCHBLECH [tu] is easily cut from sheet iron but it requires still more effort to fasten both of the small columns [t, u]. The file gives them tenons at both ends, because they likewise will be rivetted into the lock plate, [Figure XLVII t, u]. One makes a further slot with a file in the middle of both these columns on which the mid breach will rest and between both slots
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a narrow piece of iron or a tenon will be left. According to the size of the latter, a notch or mortise will be chiseled out of the narrow side of the mid breach sheet at [t] and [u] and now the small columns will be joined to the mid breach by the tenons of the former and the mortises of the latter. Still more skill and effort must be expended on the wards. If they merely consist of the two small bent sheets above and below the mid breach, they rise perpendicularly over this sheet just a few twelfths of an inch, thus the locksmith sticks the key into the lock, once he has already fastened the mid breach with its small columns, turns the key around on the sheet and holds a pencil against the slots in the bit of the key at [Figure XLIX h]. In doing this, the key turns causing the pencil to describe a half circle [vw] at the same time, according to which the wards of the lock must be soldered on if they are to fall into the slots of the key. The locksmith forges a narrow sheet for this that is as long as the half circle and as broad as both wards of the key [Figure XLIX h and i], because the wards of the lock above and below the mid breach should arise from this narrow piece. He divides the narrow piece of the wards in two further pieces following its length, drawing a line on the middle of the sheet along its length, and cutting both halves next to each other along this line with the star wedge [Figure XXXVI]
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because on both ends of the sheet there only a narrow part of the line that is not cut by the star wedge remains. Following the length of the uncut part of the line, he makes a slot on the mid breach with the file at [Figure LXVI v and w] underneath, bends the wards sheet into a curved shape, and slides it onto the mid breach so that this falls into the slots that the locksmith has made with the star wedge on the wards and the uncut part of the wards fits into the slot [v] and [w] of the mid breach. Finally, both halves of the wards above and below the circle defined by the mid breach must be soldered on. This small band is subjected to the force of the key when the former is turned in the same and therefore it must be soldered on with copper. One places small pieces of copper against the joints, dampens them with saliva, sprinkles them with powdered glass and places the mid breach with the wards in the fire. Soldering occurs when the melted copper flows and the iron will then be cooled in water. In soldering with brass the locksmith proceeds in the same manner and the sign that the uniting has taken place is that the brass gives off a blue flame. Should the wards consist of two parallel bands, then one proceeds with the second just as with the first. There

Harold // 5:03 AM
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